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WOODWORKING 


A HANDBOOK FOR BEGINNERS 
IN HOME AND SCHOOL 


TREATING OF 


TOOLS AND OPERATIONS 


BY 


CHARLES G. WHEELER 


AUTHOR OF ‘‘ WOODWORKING FOR BEGINNERS” 
AND ‘‘THE A B C OF WOODWORKING ”’ 


WITH OVER 800 ILLUSTRATIONS 


G.P. Putnam’s Sons 
New York & London 
Ghe Rnickerbocker Press 


1924 


Copyright, 1924 
by 
Charles G. Wheeler 













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Ral) > 


Meus Fo 


Made in the United States of America 


THE GETTY CENTER 


LIBRARY 


LO-THE 


BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA 
FROM ONE OF THE ADVISORS 
TO THE 


NATIONAL CouURT OF HONOUR 





PREFACE 


The aim has been to make this working handbook 
sufficiently simple, concise, and comprehensive to be suitable 
for everyone, from the young beginner to the student or 
amateur of mature years—for everybody except those already 
well trained in the subject, and possibly some of the latter class 
may find in it something of value to them. It contains prin- 
ciples and operations which a long and varied experience has 
shown to be needed and used repeatedly by beginners, school 
pupils, and amateurs. It is hoped that it will answer a large 
proportion of the common questions about the more important 
problems of general woodworking. 


C2.GroW: 





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ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT is due the following manufacturers for 
permission to use illustrations of some of their products: 
Henry Disston and Sons, Inc., Philadelphia; The Simonds 
Manufacturing Co. (Simonds Saw and Steel Co., Successor), 
Fitchburg, Mass.; The Stanley Rule and Level Plant, New 
Britain, Conn.; The Millers Falls Co., Millers Falls, Mass.; 
The L. 8. Starrett Co., Athol, Mass.; The North Bros. Manu- 
facturing Co., Philadelphia; The Cincinnati Tool Co., Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio; The Morse Twist Drill and Machine Co., New 
Bedford, Mass.; The Syracuse Twist Drill Co., Syracuse, N. Y.; 
The Russell Jennings Manufacturing Co., Chester, Conn.; 
E. H. Sheldon and Co., Muskegon, Mich.; The Batavia Clamp 
Co., Batavia, N. Y.; The Adjustable Clamp Co., Chicago; 
The Pike Manufacturing Co., Pike, N. H.; The Stine Screw 
Holes Co., Waterbury, Conn. Also to Hammacher, Schlem- 
mer and Co. Inc., New York, for the use of illustrations from 
their catalogue, and to the Forest Products Laboratory, 
Madison, Wisconsin, for valuable information. 

Credit is due the following manufacturers of woodworking 
machinery for permission to use illustrations of some of their 
products: Baxter D. Whitney and Son, Inc.; Winchendon, 
Mass.; The American Wood Working Machinery Co., 
Rochester, N. Y.; The Oliver Machinery Co., Grand Rapids, 
Mich.; The J. A. Fay and Egan Co., Cincinnati, Ohio; J. D. 
Wallace and Co., Chicago; The Mattison Machine Works, 
Rockford, Ill.; The W. F. and John Barnes Co., Rockford, 


vil 


viii Acknowledgment 


Ill. Acknowledgment is especially due Mr. Percival White of 
New York for much valuable advice and help.' 


«Some of the illustrations for which acknowledgment is made above, do 
not bear the names of the makers. They are therefore specified here: 
The Stanley Rule and Level Plant, trammel, p. 20, smoothing plane and 
router, p. 61, blind-nail tool, p. 93, dowel cutter and sharpener, pp. 333, 
334; Henry Disston and Sons, Inc., and The Simonds Manufacturing Co. 
for cuts of saw teeth, pp. 47-48, 51-52, 120; E. H. Sheldon and Co., bench 
stops, p. 3; The Russell Jennings Manufacturing Co., screw points (bits), 
p. 75; The Cincinnati Tool Co., screw and plug bit and plug cutter, p. 83, 
clamp, p. 102; Batavia Clamp Co., clamps, p. 102; Hammacher, Schlemmer 
and Co., Inc., corrugated fasteners, p.90; The Stines Screw Holes Co., 
screw holes, p. 100; The Adjustable Clamp Co., Jorgensen clamps, p. 108; 
The Pike Manufacturing Co., whetting, pp. 114, 115; Baxter D. Whitney 
and Son, Inc., circular saw bench, p. 274, planer, p. 298, cutter head, etc., 
p. 299, boring machine, p. 312, shaper, p. 333, scraper and toothing knife, 
Pp. 334; The American Wood Working Machinery Co., sawing segments, 
p. 288, jointer, pp. 301, 303, 305, 306, sanders, pp. 308, 309; The Oliver 
Machinery Co., swing saw, pp. 290, 291, portable band saw, p. 292, jig saw, 
p-. 296, mortising machine, p. 330; The Mattison Machine Works, belt 
sander, p. 310; The J. A. Fay and Egan Co., trimmer, p. 74, safety guards, 
PP. 275, 303, 312; The W. F. and John Barnes Co., jig saw, p. 297. 


SUGGESTED BOOKS FOR READING 


Among many books to which the reader might be referred 
for special study, a few may be mentioned here: Carpentry, 
by Griffith, Manual Arts Press; Wood and Forest, by Noyes, 
Manual Arts Press; Lumber and its Uses, by Kellogg, U. P. C. 
Book Co.; Glues and Glue Handling, by Teesdale and Bezeau, 
Periodical Publishing Co.; Problems of the Finishing Room, by 
Schmidt, Periodical Publishing Co.; Wood Turning, by Ross, 
Ginn and Co.; Art and Education in Wood Turning, by Klenke, 
Manual Arts Press; Wood Pattern Making by Purfield, Manual 
Arts Press; Mechanical Drawing, by Ermeling, Fischer, and 
Greene, Bruce Publishing Co.; Problems in Mechanical Draw- 
ang, by Bennett, Manual Arts Press; Mechanical Drawing 
Problems, by Berg and Kronquist, Manual Arts Press; Me- 
chanical Drawing for High Schools, by French and Svenson, 
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.; Blue Print Reading, by 
Wyatt, Bruce Publishing Co.; Furniture Upholstery, by John- 
son, Manual Arts Press. Interesting and valuable inform- 
ation may be found in the educational pamphlets, charts, etc., 
issued by Henry Disston and Sons, Inc., the Simonds Tool and 
Steel Co., the American Wood Working Machinery Co., the 
Pike Manufacturing Co., the Stanley Rule and Level Plant, 
and others. Also from the catalogues issued by various 
manufacturers, and those of dealers, as Hammacher, Schlem- 
mer, and Co. of New York. 


ix 





TO TEACHERS 


There is need of more concentration upon the essentials of 
today. Also, as President Sills of Bowdoin said recently, “‘there 
is too much teaching and not enough learning’’ nowadays. 

The elementary principles of woodworking, as of other 
subjects, can be re-discovered by small children, to their 
advantage, whenever there are enough teachers capable of 
setting the stage for such investigative and inventive work 
and of seeing that the play is successfully carried out, and 
whenever the means and time are provided. At present, 
however, for most communities this is merely a pedagogical 
theory. When we come to the sixth, seventh, eighth grades, | 
secondary schools, technical schools, and mature amateurs, 
it is too late to expect such pupils to re-discover for themselves 
or to learn wholly by experience such simple principles as 
this book contains. 

The more quickly the pupil can learn these principles—as he 
needs them—the better he will get along with the real work 
itself, whatever it may be. He can learn these fundamentals 
readily with this manual at hand and the teacher be relieved 
of part of his routine work. No school workshop can be really 
successful unless the teacher isfresh enoughto beon the qu vive 
mentally and on the jump physically all the time. The more 
he can be freed from routine duties the less likely he will be to 
go stale or become narrow; and the breadth and enthusiasm 
of the teacher react very powerfully upon the pupils,—for the 
old adage, ‘‘as is the teacher so is the school,”’ still holds true. 

If the inexperienced teacher thinks this book contains more 
than his classes need, he may be reminded that he is obliged 
to use no more than he requires and can leave the rest until 
wanted. Also, that it is a vital part of a shop teacher’s work 


x1 


xii To Teachers 


to be a good sport,—to have such good relations with his pupils 
that they feel free to talk with him about their outside prob- 
lems. The initiative, enquiring spirit, and capability of the 
ambitious pupil are not bounded by any school programme. 
Besides, increasing numbers of schools are reaching out after 
community work, work for the schools themselves, household 
work, etc. All these things, with the varied demands of 
emergencies, call for many, often unexpected, operations— 
whether the actual work be done in the school shop or outside. 
Just as the teacher is under a handicap if he does not know 
much more about his subjects than is contained in any ordinary 
‘““Course’’—the pupils will quickly discover his limitations— 
so the ambitious pupil also is retarded if he does not have some 
readily available means of learning for himself about common 
principles and operations, whether included or not included 
in his regular school work. It is hoped that this book may 
thus help both the inexperienced teacher and his still more 
inexperienced pupils. 

Looked at from the artistic or sentimental point of view 
there is something about hand work—the human touch or 
personal equation—which no machine can supply, as with 
carving, a piece of antique furniture, a colonial house; but we 
must accept the fact that we are now living in an age of auto- 
matic machinery. Wemay lovea spirited horse, but we travel 
by motor. With the individual, however, and with the school, 
it is not yet necessary to sacrifice the advantages of hand work 
merely because it is wise to use machinery for some operations. 
While no one should be allowed to become an automaton from 
the continued employment of self-acting inventions, a reason- 
able use of the common machines calls for intelligence and is 
educative. 

If one spends ten hours in doing by hand routine work which 
he has already learned to do reasonably well, when he can 
accomplish this work with a machine in half an hour, he is 
wasting valuable time. The judicious use of machinery, 


To Teachers xiii 


either by the pupil or by others for him, greatly enlarges his 
opportunities, and machinery will not exhaust the possibilities 
of desirable hand work in wood for a long time to come. 

We learn to a great extent by doing, by experiences. There- 
fore, for example, if one may have time to go through ten 
different experiences using hand work only, he may, with the 
help of machinery for common routine operations, go through 
perhaps fifty different experiences. The time thus saved by 
the use of machinery will allow him to advance to more difficult 
problems in woodworking, or to take up other desirable sub- 
jects, instead of being held back by doing over and over again 
what he has once learned. His acquaintance with work can 
thus be more varied and include also some of the elements of 
modern industrial methods; not to speak of producing more 
work, usually of better quality. Whether pupils can use, or 
should use, machinery must depend upon the conditions of 
each case, but all should know what the common machines do, 
how they work, and how to avoid injury from them. 

This book contains no pedagogical theories. It is simply a 
working handbook for everyday service,—to be used according 
to the methods of each teacher and the conditions of each 
school. The ability to use tools properly is not the end and 
aim, nor the most vital part, of manual training, but an avail- 
able working knowledge of fundamental principles and oper- 
ations is essential to doing work that is worthwhile. There- 
fore it is hoped that whatever wasted energy this handbook 
may save will be devoted to those stimulating and developing 
projects of real life which are the soul of manual training— 
those undertakings which are so numerous that a long waiting- 
list can always be ahead of even the most wide-awake teacher 
and his pupils. 


The inexperienced teacher who may make use of the Questions 
included in this book may be reminded that the intelligent performance 
of an operation is a better test of a pupil’s mastery of the subject than 
the ability to make oral or written statements about it. 





CONTENTS 


PAGE 
PREFACE : : , : : é ; yo 
ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . : : : : a Ui 
SUGGESTED BOOKS FOR READING : : : ix 
To TEACHERS . ; ; X1 
WorKSHOP, TOOLS, AND OTHER ane ; I 
TOOLS FOR LAYING OUT AND TESTING WoRK 7 


Rule—Straight-edge—Square—Face-side and Joint-edge—Gauge— 
Bevel—Combination Square—Compasses or Dividers—Cali- 
pers—Spline—Level and Plumb—Chalk and Line—Symmetri- 
cal Work—Testing Work—Laying out Work. 


TOOLS FOR CUTTING, SHAPING, FITTING, ASSEMBLING, 
i) oa : ; : : : } 36 


Knife—Hatchet—Chisel—Gouge—Drawknife or Drawshave—Saw 
—Mitre-box—Plane—Bead Cutter—Spokeshave—Trimmer— 
Boring Tools—File—Rasp—Scraper—Sandpaper— Hammer, 
Nailing, etc.—Nail Set—Mallet—Screwdriver, Screws, etc.— 
Clamps, Handscrews, etc.—Sharpening—Saw-filing. 


SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES ; fa jiels 


The Process—A Few Elementary Principles of Construction, Often 
Violated—Paring and Finishing to Shape—Squaring Stock to 
Dimensions. 


SOME COMMON OPERATIONS : ae 


Assembling—Bending Wood—Beveling and Cilgittanae no 
making—Carving—Clapboarding—Cleating and Battening— 
Door-making and Paneling—Drawer-making—Finishing— 
Flashing — Floor-laying — Glazing — Glueing — Grooving — 
Hinge-fitting—Inlaying— Joints— Lock-fitting — Pattern-mak- 
ing—Rabbeting—Repairing Furniture, etc-—Rounding Sticks 
and Edges—Scribing with Compasses, etc.—Shelf-fitting— 
Shingling—Splitting Wood—Upholstering—Veneering. 

XV 


XVi Contents 


CoMMON WOODWORKING MACHINES AND THEIR USES 


Circular Saw—Band Saw—Jig Saw—Planer—Jointer—Sanding 
Machines—Boring Machines—Lathe—Mortising Machines— 
Tenoning Machines—Moulding Machines—Scraping Machines 
—Shafting, Pulleys, Belts, etc. 


Woop... ; f : ‘ 2 i 


INDEX . 2 : é : ¥ 


PAGE 
272 


340 
355 


WOODWORKING 


WORKSHOP, TOOLS, AND OTHER EQUIPMENT 


1. A workshop should be well lighted, dry, and have a good 
wooden floor. Place the bench so that you face the light when 
working, and also have light on your left if possible. 





2. Benches and vises. Common form of school bench, 
excellent also for home use, with vise for holding wood at the 
left,’ and tail-vise at the right end with stops (pegs) for holding 


t When screwing the vise very tightly to hold a piece in one end only 
put a waste piece of the same thickness in the other end, to equalize the 
pressure (97). There are a number of desirable ‘‘quick-action”’ vises 
which can be adjusted readily to hold work in various positions. 


I 


2 Woodworking 


work. There is a rack for tools at the back. A cabinet- 
maker’s bench is similar but larger. There are many kinds 
of benches. The frame should be firmly bolted together or 
keyed, as shown, and the top prevented from warping by being 
made of selected strips (534) of maple, beech, birch, or other 
fine-grained hard wood, glued, bolted together, and sometimes 
dovetailed (527). Have the bench firmly fastened to the floor. 





3. Showing use of stops. The work is held between a stop 
in the tail-vise and a stop in one of the holes in the bench 
top. 

4. Common carpenter’s bench, usually made of soft wood, 
with iron vise-screw, and often an adjustable iron bench-stop 





or dog (6) at the left end of the top to hold boards while planing 
the sides. The holes in the front are for pegs to support long 
boards when on edge in the vise. Such a bench will do for 
much common work. Boards running lengthways can be used 
for the top, but a thicker top of plank is better. 


* The height of a bench should be such that the worker’s right elbow, 
when holding the plane, will be slightly bent and his back about straight. 
A bench for cabinet-making or pattern-making is usually a little higher 
than one for carpentry, while a carver’s bench is a little higher still. A 
nice bench top should be scraped occasionally (194), rubbed with linseed 
oil, and given a coat of shellac (406). 


a 


Workshop, Tools, and Other Equipment 3. 








6. Benchstops, There are many kinds. 


4 Woodworking 





7. Simple devices for holding stock on a rough bench. 

8. Bench hook. Useful for holding work on the bench for 
sawing, planing, etc. About 15” long by 6” wide is a good 
size. The cross cleats should be square with the right hand 





edge of the board. The under cross cleat can be pushed 
against the front edge of the bench or fastened in the vise. 
Hold the work against the upper cross cleat C (122). If 
this cleat be short, it may save marring the bench when 
sawing. 


Workshop, Tools, and Other Equipment 5 





9. Horses for sawing and for supporting work. The 
height should be such that you can work conveniently,— 
from 18” to a little over two feet. 

10. Tools. The most important thing with edged tools, 
hammers, etc., is the quality and proper tempering of the steel. 
It is best not to buy cheap tools. 

It is impossible to make a satisfactory list of tools for 
everyone, because there is practically no limit to the variety of 
work which an amateur or beginner may have good reason for 
undertaking. The assortment found in school shops is usually 
greater than the beginner needs at first for home work. The 
wisest way is to begin with a few of the most common tools, 
adding others as they are needed. Refer to the manufactur- 
ers’ catalogues. A great deal of ordinary work can be done 
with only a rule, a try square, a cross-cut saw, a jack plane, a 
hammer, a bit brace and a few bits and drills, a screw driver, and 
one or two chisels (14",14",1"). If your work is at all varied, 
however, you cannot get along to good advantage without 
a larger kit, including for example: a rule, a try square, a 
straight-edge, a knife, two or three chisels, a hatchet, a gauge, a 
plane, a spokeshave, a cross-cut saw, a hammer and nazl set, a 
bit brace and several bits (twist bits and drills are good for the 
smaller sizes), a countersink, a screwdriver, a rasp and half- 
round file for wood, an oilstone, a glue-pot. When you feel the 
need of more tools you will wish to add, perhaps, one or two 
more planes, a rip saw, one or more gouges, a mallet, a back saw, 
compasses, a Steel square, a drawknife, one or two more screw- 
drivers, a scraper,a few hand screws or clamps, a few more bits 
or some kind of automatic borer, a level, a bevel, a grinding 
wheel, etc. These are merely suggestions as to the best way 


6 Woodworking 


to acquire a set of tools. It all depends on the work you do. 
For example, you can do a great variety of work without 
needing a level or plumb. On the other hand you may need 
these quite often. Therefore it is well to defer buying tools 
having limited uses until you need them.’ Good sets of tools 
are put up by a number of reliable makers and dealers, but 
avoid cheap sets of the toy class. 

Keep all common everyday tools within convenient reach. 
To prevent rusting, rub with sperm oil or other anti-rust 
substance. Burn oily rags to prevent spontaneous combustion. 
Keep bandages and a few remedies for accidents at hand. 

11. Fitting handles. Where the handle goes through an 
eye, as with the hammer, axe, etc., shape the handle to fit, split 
or saw into the end, on the long diameter, and fit and driveina 
wedge, or wedges, until the end is spread to fit very tightly. 
Then smooth the end. Other wedges are often driven cross- 
ways of the end. Metal wedges and other tightening devices 
are also used. With a tool like a ‘‘tang’’’ chisel (83, footnote) 
bore a hole in the handle slightly smaller than the tang, insert 
end of tang, and strike the end of the handle until the tool and 
handle are fitted. A broken handle can be removed easily 
from a hammer head by placing in an oven with moderate heat. 


QUESTIONS 


. What conditions are essential for a good shop? 

. What is the most important requirement in placing the bench? 
. How should the top of a good bench be made? Why? 

. Show how to hold work with a temporary or rough bench. 

. Show the use of a bench hook. 

. What is the most important requirement for edged tools? 

. What tools would you buy first in gradually acquiring a set? 


N AuNPW NHN 


t Besides woodworking tools the worker in wood often has use also for 
such tools as an anvil with flat top and “‘round horn” or conical point (a 
heavy piece of iron is better than nothing), a vise for metal (on a separate 
bench), pliers, cutting nippers, cold chisel, hack saw, snips for metal, files 
for metal (flat, triangular, and round), monkey wrench, Stillson or pipe 
wrench, wrecking tool, etc. 

The tang is the pointed end to be driven into the handle. 


TOOLS FOR LAYING OUT AND TESTING WORK 


12. Common tools are the Rule, Steel tape, Square, Knife, 
Scratch-awl, Pencil, Bevel, Marking-gauge, Compasses or 
Dividers, Straight-edge, Chalk and line, Level, Plumb, and 
Calipers. 

Measuring, marking, and testing must be accurate or the 
rest of your labour may be wasted. In common work where 
many pieces of the same length are to be cut, use the first piece 
cut as a measure for all the rest. 

13. Marking. For fine work, mark with a knife’ or sharp 
pencil. For rough work, use a scratch-awl (with a sharp point) 
or a carpenter’s pencil (with a wide lead). The knife should be 
sharp but should not have a very thin point. Sharpen pencil 
points on sandpaper or a fine file. 


Rule 


14. Measuring and marking dimensions. Lay the rule on 
edge so that the divisions on its side touch the wood. ’* Mark 





ACCURATE INACCURATE 


t The corner of a chisel can be used, drawing the edge toward you, as 
you would a knife, keeping the nearer corner of the chisel edge raised above 
the wood. The flat side of the chisel should be against the edge by which 
you are marking. 

2 This does not apply to a rule with the scale on a bevelled edge. 


7 


8 Woodworking 


with a knife or sharp pencil. Mark a series of short distances 
without moving the rule, for every time you set it you are 


likely to make a slight mistake, which will affect each remain- 
ing measurement and the total measurement. 





15. Making a short measurement. Use any divisions on 
the rule rather than the end, for the end is likely to be in- 
accurate and is hard to place on the line or edge. 

16. For long distances mark on a stick or use a steel tape. 
Marking on a stick is a good way to transfer short measure- 
ments also. To make an exact long measurement you can 
use two rules, placing the second at the end of the first, then 
the first at the end of the second, and soon. The zigzag fold- 
ing rule, from 2’ to 8’ long, is convenient. Witha sliding exten- 
sion it can be used for inside measurements (17). To verify 
a measurement, measure back to the starting point. For large 
rough work have a 10’ or 12’ rod with feet and inches marked. — 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 9 


17. Inside measurement. To find the distance between 
two points where it is hard to use a common rule, take an 


extension- or slide-rule, or two sticks as shown. For example, 
when fitting an upright post between floor and ceiling in the 
middle of aroom. See Calipers, 44. 

18. Dividing the width of a board into two or more equal 
parts quickly. To find the middle, set the rule so that some 
inch-mark is equally distant from each edge. In the first 
illustration, the inch-mark shown by the pencil point is 134” 





from each edge. Or the rule can be turned slantingly, as in the 
second illustration, and the distance divided into a number of 
equal parts quickly. If set, for example, to measure 6”’ from 
edge to edge, the width can be divided readily into halves, 
thirds, quarters, sixths, twelfths, etc. See also Compasses, 42. 


10 Woodworking 


19. Finding the middle of the length of a board or other 
long surface. Measure from one end to as near the middle as 


/ " 


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Oy eB Oe eee 






you can judge by eye and make a mark (A). Measure the 
same distance from the other end and make another mark 
(B). The distance between A and B, being short, can be 
halved quickly. 


Straight-edge 


20. Straight-edge. This can be anything with a straight 
edge, from a common ruler or the blade of a square to a long 
board. Used to mark straight lines and to test edges for 
straightness and broad surfaces for flatness (57, 62, etc.). 

21. Marking by a straight-edge. Keep the top of the 
marking tool slightly inclined away from the straight-edge, 





but with the point close to it. Have one or two long straight- 
edges on hand.’ For testing work, see 52, etc. 
* A wooden straight-edge should be made of wood which will keep its 


shape. Quarter-sawed (739), thoroughly seasoned white pine, or mahog- 
any, is good. 





THIN RULE-—FINE WORK 


For very fine pencil or ink work, like drawing, with a thin straight-edge, 
as a tee-square, ruler, or triangle, place the edge not quite on the points for 
the line, and tip the marking tool the opposite way, as shown. 

To test a straight-edge, mark a fine line by it, then turn it over, but not 
end for end, and see whether the edge coincides with the line. Test a short 
edge by placing on a surface known to be flat, like an iron saw-bench top. 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 11 


Square 


22. Square. Used to mark lines at right angles to an 
edge or surface, and to test right-angled work. The common 
forms are the Try square and the Steel square or Framing square. 





STOCK 
(HANDLE) 





23. Squaring a line across the grain with Try square. 
Select one edge from which to square all lines, for the edges 
may not be parallel. For nice work this edge must be straight. 
Press the stock of the square against the wood and mark along the 
blade with a knife or sharp pencil. A good way is to place 
the knife where the line is to be marked, and slide the square 
along until it hits it. Then mark the line. To mark lines with 
the grain (292, etc.), use the gauge (28). For testing work 
with square, see 58, etc. 

24. Steel square or Framing square. Chiefly used in 
building construction, but also in shops for large work. Many 
computations can be made and much laying out of work done 
with it. The blade (the long arm) is 2’’ wide and the tongue 
(the short arm) is 1%” wide. See also 35, 36. See The Steel 
Square, Hodgson. 


25. Squaring a line with Steel square. 


12 Woodworking 


26. Mason’s square. For large work, like squaring foun- 
dations, sills, etc., make a square of narrow boards. Any 





triangle with sides three, four, and five units in length (or any 
multiple of these units, as six, eight, and ten) can be used as a 
square. * 


t This is on the mathematical principle that in a right-angled triangle the 
square of the hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other 
sides. 5X5 =25. 4X4 =16. 3%3 =9. 25 =16+9. 





On the same principle, in an emergency, if you have only a common two- 
foot rule, lay off 8’’ (AB), partially open the rule, place it so that the division 
6” from the hinge on one arm of the rule and that 10” from the hinge on 
the other arm touch the ends of the 8” line at Aand B. Draw line CB. 
It will be at right angles to AB. For larger work, in an emergency, two 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 13 
Face-Side and Joint-Edge 
27. Working-face or face-side and Joint-edge or working- 


edge. First select one edge (usually the better edge) of the 
board or plank, mark it, and use the square from this edge 









x 


Working Face 


only, for the edges may not be parallel. This edge is often 
called the ‘“‘joint-edge”’ or ‘‘working-edge.”’ If not straight 
and square, plane it until it is so (138, etc.), for you must have 
at least one accurate edge from which to lay out work properly. 
In the same way when squaring lines across the edges of a 
board or plank, select one side (usually the better side), mark it 
and square from this side only. (Often called the ‘ working- 
face”’ or ‘‘face-side.’’) A mark like a V will show both joint- 
edge and working-face. See also 72, 296, etc. 


Gauge 


28. Gauge. Used to mark lines parallel with an edge, with 
the grain. 


straight-edged strips can be placed approximately at right angles, by eye, 
and then adjusted by measuring on the principle just shown, until the edges 
are at right angles. A right angle can also be found by carefully folding a 
sheet of stiff paper,—once if it has a straight edge, twice if it has not; and 
the result will usually be as accurate as the work of any but a highly 
skilled workman. Such methods are for emergencies only, not for use in 
a well-equipped shop. No good workman would use such a method as 
folding paper if a regular square were available, but much work often has to 
be done in places where the proper tools are not within reach. Ifthe right 
tool cannot be found the capable and resourceful workman contrives a 
substitute. 


14 Woodworking 





29. Setting the marking gauge. Have the spur project 
only from ;;”’ to #3,"... Set it at the required distance from 
the head. If the tool is in good condition, set it by the scale 
on the bar. If not, and for accurate work, measure with the 

rule as shown. * 

30. Marking with gauge. Hold the wood firmly against 
some fixed object, or in the vise, or otherwise. Hold the gauge 
as shown. Press the head of it against the edge of the wood. 





Turn it slightly from you, so that the spur will be drawn along, 
and push the tool steadily from you as far as the line is to be 
marked. Keep the head pressed against the wood, for the 
spur is apt to follow the grain. When gauging parallel lines, 
gauge all from the same edge or side, for the edges or sides may 


The spur will make a better line when slightly convex on the side 
toward the head and with the front corner slightly rounded. 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 15 


not be parallel. To mark across the grain, use square and 
knife or pencil (23, 24, 25). 





A mortise gauge has two spurs. <A metal roller gauge, has a 
roller instead of aspur. This can be used across the grain for 
ordinary work. Both rollers can be used for mortising (467), 
etc. There are other gauges for special uses, as for very 
wide stock, for cutting thin stock, for fitting hinges, etc. If 
gauge-marks would deface the work, use a pencil-gauge, or 
make one by boring a hole for a pencil near one end of the bar 
of a wooden gauge. The Try square can be used as a gauge, 
if necessary, with the graduations on its blade. See Combi- 
nation square (37). 


31. Thumb-gauging, for rough work. Slide rule and 
pencil along together, guided by thumb or finger at the edge. 





32. Gauging near an edge with finger and pencil. A good 
way when scratches would deface the work and when exact 


16 Woodworking 


measurement is not needed. For example, when rounding the 
edge of a board, such lines show where to stop the rounding, 
and the surface will not show gauge marks. 





33. Emergency gauges. Easily made and also convenient 
for special work to save re-setting the regular gauge. 

Intersection of lines. When gauge lines meet other lines, 
let them run by if the marks will not deface the work, for the 
crossing of two lines is the best way to mark a point. 


Bevel 


34. Bevel. For marking or testing any angle except a 
right angle. Set the movable blade of the T-bevel at the 





angle you wish, and use like the square. In the same way test 
or duplicate an angle. The Mitre square is accurate for small 
work only. 

35. Setting bevel at 45°. Place on the edge of the steel 
square and set the blade of the bevel at the same division on 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 17 


both the blade and the tongue of the square. In the case 
shown, the bevel is set at 5” on the tongue of the square and at 












Na M.. 


5” onthe blade. For other angles note the figures intercepted 
by the blade. See Mitre-box (128, etc.), Mitring (508, etc.). 





36. To mark an angle of 45° on the wood with the steel 
square, place the same divisions on the blade and on the 
tongue at the edge of the board. In the case shown, 6” on 
each. The lines AC and BC will be at 45° with the edge of the 
board.* This is often simpler than to use the bevel. An angle 
of 45° can be tested in the same way. 





1If you have no steel square, a right angle can be drawn from the 
straight edge of a board, points B and C marked at equal distances from 


i8 Woodworking 


Combination Square 


37. Combination square. Combines marking gauge, 
square, rule, mitre square, depth gauge, height gauge, level, 





and plumb. For common work a combination tool called 
“Odd jobs”’ is useful. 


Compasses or Dividers 


38. Compasses or Dividers. Used to describe or ‘‘strike’”’ 
circles or arcs; to take measurements from a rule, a drawing, or 
some object; to lay out measurements; to divide distances; to 
‘“‘scribe,’’ where a gauge cannot be used (See Scribing, 571); 
to lay off angles and arcs. 


the point A, and the bevel set at 45° by the points B and C, or the angle 
can be drawn directly on the wood. The bevel can also be set at different 
angles from a protractor or from a drawing triangle, etc. Any angle can 
be marked by cutting a wedge-shaped piece with the required taper and 


holding it against the inside edge of a square. The square used in the 
ordinary way will then give the required bevel, as shown. An emergency 
bevel can easily be made by nailing together two sticks of wood at the 
required angle, and is sometimes convenient to save resetting the regular 
bevel. Stiff paper can also be folded (see 26, footnote). 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 19 


39. Setting by the rule. The set-screw at the side of the 
curved wing fastens the legs wherever you wish. Adjust the 
points accurately with the nut and spring. 





40. To mark circles or arcs of circles. Set the compasses 
(39) so that the distance between the points is equal to the 





radius of the circle or arc. Place one point at the center, 
hold the compasses lightly at the top and lean them slightly 
in the direction they are to be turned. Then draw the curve." 


eT 4 


« A thin slip placed under the point at the centre will save defacing the 
surface. When a scratched curve would be objectionable, use pencil 
dividers or a pencil attachment. 


20 Woodworking 


41. ‘* Stepping off’? with compasses. To repeat a short 
measurement several times set the compasses at the required 





distance (39), and ‘‘step off’? the measurements by turning 
the compasses first upon one point and then upon the other, 
but without pressing the points into the wood more than to 
make a visible dot. 

42. To divide a short distance, as AB, into any number of 
equal parts,—five, for example. Set the compasses at one- 
fifth of the distance, as nearly as you can judge by eye, and 





step them over the space (41). Open or shut them one-fifth 
of the distance by which they overrun the point B or fall short 
of it, as nearly as you can estimate by eye, and step over the 
space again. When right, press the points into the wood only 
enough to make a visible dot. 





43. Trammel points, sliding on a bar, for large circles or 
arcs. A pencil point can be used. There are similar attach- 
ments for arule. In an emergency use a stick, or strip of any 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 21 


firm material, and two nails, or one nail and a pencil, as 
shown.” 


Calipers 


44. Calipers are for measuring diameters. To read the 
measurement apply the calipers to the rule. They can also be 





OUTSIDE CALIPERS INSIDE CALIPERS 


set by the rule. ‘‘Outside”’ calipers find the outside diameter 
(681). ‘‘Inside”’ calipers measure the distance between two 
inside points, as the inside diameter of a pipe, etc. For large 


* To draw a circular arc when the centre is out of reach. Suppose the 
arc is to pass through the points Aand C. Drive nails at A and C, make a 





triangular frame of strips with a right angle at B, and slide it around with a 
pencil or marking point at B, keeping the frame pressed against the nails as 
itis moved. The pencil will describe the required arc. For smaller work 
slide the steel square around in the same way (7o1, footnote). These 
methods are often useful where extreme accuracy is not required. 


22 Woodworking 


work, see 17. Some rules have caliper adjustments for small 
work.* 
Spline 
45. Spline. Drawing an irregular curve. Drive a nail, 
fasten a clamp, or place a weight, at each end of the desired 





curve. Push a flexible strip or spline against the nails, bend to 
the required curve, and draw the line. 


Level and Plumb 


46. Spirit Level (usually combined witha Plumb). This is 
used to tell whether a surface is level. Place the level, with 
glass bulb uppermost, on the surface to be tested. The glass 


bulb has a mark in the middle and contains an air bubble. 
When the mark on the bulb is in the middle of the air bubble, 
the surface is level. On a long surface, place a long straight- 
edge (20) of uniform thickness under the level. ? 





Outside diameters can sometimes be found with two squares. Read 
the scale on the edge of the outer square or measure the distance between 
the blades with the rule. 

2 Home-made level, several feet long, for rough work. When the plumb 
ab is vertical (on the line drawn from a to b), cd, at right angles to ab, will 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 23 


47. Plumb. To tell whether a surface is vertical, place the 
level or plumb upright against the surface to be tested. When 





amen “4 a b 

the mark on the bulb near the top is in the middle of the air 
bubble, the surface is vertical. If the surface be long, place a 
long straight-edge of uniform thickness between it and the 
plumb.* 


be level, because a level or horizontal line is at right angles to a vertical one. 
An approximate level can be found by using the steel-square (for which 


a 





there is also a levelling attachment) or the larger mason’s square (26) ina 
similar way. An emergency level for rough work can be found by filling 
a wide pan with water. 

*Emergency plumb, made with a board, a weight, and a string, is fairly 
accurate if long, as ata. If short, it may be inaccurate for the whole sur- 


24 Woodworking 


48. Plumb-bob. To find a vertical line hang 
a weight by a cord. The cord will be vertical 
as soon as it stops swinging. To find a point 
vertically above or below another point, as, for 
example, to mark a point on the ceiling in a ver- 
tical line above a point on the floor, or vice versa, 
hang a plumb-bob by a cord. 


Chalk and Line 





49. Chalk and line. Used for marking long straight lines, 
as for shingling. Drive an awl or nail at one end of the line 


to be marked and loop around it the end of the cord. Chalk 
the cord from this end. The chalk can be revolved in the hand 
so that it will not be cut in two. 

50. Snapping the line. Draw the cord taut at the free end, 
hold this end down with one hand, lift the line squarely from as 





near the middle as practicable with thumb and forefinger of 
the other hand, and let it snap back to the surface. ‘This will 
make a straight chalked line on the surface. 


face,asat 6. When cord hangs on center line or at apex of notch, the edge 
of the board, which must be parallel to the line, will be vertical. 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 25 


Symmetrical Work 


51. Symmetrical work can be laid out from a centre line 
or from the joint-edge (27). For example, the blade of a 
paddle. Square lines across the surface. Mark equal dis- 





| CENTRE 
LINE 





“OINT EDGE 





Teed 
as ae 
tances on each side of centre line and connect these points 
free hand, or with a spline (45); or draw on paper and transfer 


to the wood. In some cases, mark and measure from the 
joint-edge, as shown." 


ay 


t Paper can often be used. Fold in the middle, draw one-half pattern, 
unfold and trace, or cut outline and mark byit. Ifa curved pattern is to 
be sawed, one-half can sometimes be drawn on the wood, and sawed care- 
fully to the centre line, the waste piece turned over to the other side of the 
centre line and used to mark the duplicate half of the pattern. 





@->- -I["--—> 


26 Woodworking 


Testing Work 


52. Testing work for squareness, straightness, flatness and 
symmetry. Keep testing. Test first by eye. When you can- 
not tell by eye, use testing tools. 


MESON II 


53. A flat surface. A surface is flat or true (a plane sur- 
face) when a straight-edge, in whatever position placed, will 
touch it throughout. 


a 


54. Accurled or “ cupped ”’ surface. 


eee 


55. A warped and winding surface (twisted). 


56. Testing straightness by eye. Face the light. Sight 
along the edge lengthways. 





57. Testing short piece with straight-edge (20). Face the 
light. The edge can also be laid on a surface known to be flat, 
as the top of an iron saw-bench. 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 27 


58. Testing for squareness. First test by eye, as for 
straightness (56). If you cannot tell by eye, press the try 
square against the wood, face the light, and see whether the 
wood fits the square. Test at several points. For large work 
use the steel square (24). 


" 
é 


For some work the wood need not be flat. Sometimes, if 
warped or winding, it will be sufficiently flattened by being 
fastened into place. But for much nice work the surfaces must 
be flat in order that the parts may fit together properly, and 
for appearance. 

Flatness and smoothness are not the same. A surface may 
be smooth without being flat. To test the smoothness run 
your fingers lightly over the surface. 








59. Testing flatness by eye. Sight across the surface 
toward the light. 


i 


28 Woodworking 





60. Testing flatness by eye. Sight lengthways toward the 
light. 





61. Testing flatness by sighting diagonally. 
62. Testing flatness with straight-edge. When you cannot 
tell by eye, use a straight-edge placed in different positions. 





If it touches throughout, in all positions, the surface is flat. 
Face the light. The surface shown above is flat at one diagonal 
but not at the other. 





63. Testing flatness of small surface lengthways with 
square, 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 29 


es 


64. Testing flatness crossways with square. 





65. Testing flatness of edge with square. 
66. Winding-sticks. To test large work, take two straight- 
edges (winding-sticks) each of equal width throughout, and 





lay them on edge, one across each end of the surface to be 
tested. Then stand back and sight across the top edge of one 
straight-edge to the top edge of the other. If they are in line, 
there is no winding where they are placed. Test in different 
positions. * 


* Making a four-legged object stand evenly. To find which leg, or legs, 
to cut to make a table or other four-legged object stand evenly, turn it over 
and use straight-edges on the principle just shown (66, 67, 68). Another 


30 Woodworking 


67. Steel squares used as winding sticks. The top edges 
of these squares are not in line, which shows this surface to be 
winding. 





WINDING 


68. Long winding-sticks are best. 

69. Testing angles of 45°, or any angle other than a right 
angle, can be done with the bevel used in the same way as the 
square, or by the steel square, etc. See 35, 36, 37. 


Laying Out Work 


70. Duplicate parts should be laid out together if possible. 
Use a square to get the ends in line. Mark all together. If 


method. Place on a flat surface, wedge under the legs until the corners 
of the top are equally distant from the flat surface on which the object 





stands. Set the compasses (39) at the distance to which the shortest leg is 
raised, and scribe (571) around the other legs. Then cut them off. Or 
mark around the legs by using a strip or rule laid on the surface on which 
the object stands. 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 31 


awkward to hold, use hand screws, clamp, or vise. Also gauge 
similar marks before re-setting gauge. Have the lines cross or 





run by (33). On work which would be defaced by scratched 
lines use a pencil. 


71. Marking position of parts. Where there is chance for 
mistakes in putting work together, mark the pieces and their 


32 Woodworking 


positions with figures, letters, or other symbols. When plan- 
ning how work is to go together, it is well to mark roughly 
the places for joints, etc., before finally laying them out. 

72. Selection of face side and joint edge (27). In some 
work the face side should be the side which shows, as the top 
of a table or the front of a picture frame; but the face sides of 
the legs of tables, chairs, etc., should be on the inside to ensure 
accurate joints with the rails (305) and other parts. The joint- 
edges of door-frames, etc., should be on the inside (372). All 
working-faces and joint-edges must be planed true where 
joints are formed. In some cases the joint-edge and working- 
face should be the poorer edge or face because the other will be 
more conspicuous. 

73. Expansion and contraction cf the wood must be al- 
lowed for when laying out many kinds of work (747, 326, 376, 
379, 382 footnote, 387, 484, 541, etc.). 

Summary. Accuracy essential. For fine work mark witha 
knife or sharp pencil. Start all measurements from the same 
edge, the same side, or the same point, when possible. Make 
lengthways measurements from one end, after that end has 
been squared. Make a single measurement when possible, 
rather than several successive shorter ones. Mark successive 
short measurements without moving the rule, when you can. 
Mark successive duplicate lengths from the piece first cut. 
Have accurate joint-edge or face-side from which to use square, 
gauge, bevel, or rule. Keep square, gauge, etc., pressed firmly 
against the wood. A point, or an angle, is best shown by 
intersecting lines. Do similar operations at the same time. 
Test repeatedly for accuracy (facing the light), first by eye, 
then with other testing instruments. 


QUESTIONS 


1. What is most important in laying out and testing work? 

2. What marking instrument should be used for fine work?—for rough work? 

3. Show how to place the rule for accurate measuring or marking. 

4. Why is it best to mark several short distances without moving the rule 
rather than to move it for each measurement? 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 33 


5. What are the most accurate ways to measure long distances, or to transfer 
such measurements? 

6. Show a simple way to find the exact distance from any point on a floor 
to the ceiling above, and in similar cases of inside measurements. 

7. Show how to quickly divide the width of a board into two or more equal 
parts. 

8. Show how to quickly find the middle of the length of a board or other 
surface. 

9. If you are cutting fifty sticks of the same length, why should you use the 
stick first cut as a measure for all the rest rather than to use each stick as you 
cut it? 

10. Find a stratght-edge and show how to mark a line by it. 

11. Show how to test the accuracy of a straight-edge. 

12. What are the uses of the square? 

13. Show how to square lines across the grain with the try-square—with 
the steel square. 

14. Why, for accurate work, should you select one edge from which to square 
all lines? Why should that edge be straight? 

15. Show how to make a mason’s square, and give the mathematical principle 
upon which 1t is made. 

16. Show how to use a common rule upon this principle. 

17. Explain the terms working-face or face-side—joint-edge or working- 
edge. 

18. Why select a face-side or a joint-edge? 

19. In what cases should these be the better sides or edges, and when should 
they be the poorer ones? Why? 

20. For what 1s the gauge used? 

21. Show the proper projection of the spur, how to set the gauge, how to hold 
it, and how to mark a line with it. 

22. If you are gauging two or more parallel lines, why should you gauge 
them from the same edge? 

23. When 1s 1t better to use a pencil mark than the spur of a gauge? 

24. Show how to ‘“‘thumb-gauge.’’ When is thumb-gauging desirable? 
Show how to gauge near an edge with finger and pencil. When desirable? 

25. Show what the bevel is for, how to set it, and how to use it for marking or 
testing. 

26. Set the bevel at 45° by the steel square. 

27. Set it at 45° without the steel square. 

28. Mark an angle of 45° directly on the wood with the steel square. 

29. Show ways of marking at other angles. 

30. Show how to set compasses or dividers by the rule, and to strike a circle 
or an are. 


34 Woodworking 


31. How can you avoid scratching the wood? 

32. How can you avoid pricking a hole at the centre? 

33. Show how to ‘step off’’ a measurement several times. 

34. Show how to divide a distance into a number of equal paris. 

35. When would you use trammel points? Make a substitute. 

36. Show how to draw a circular arc when the centre 1s out of reach. 

37. Show how to find the diameter of a rod with calipers and how to read the 
measurement. 

38. Show how to find the inside diameter of a pipe and how to read the 
measurement. 

39. Show simple way to find outside diameter without calipers. 

40. Show how to use a spline for drawing a curve. 

41. Show how to use the spirit level—to level a long surface accurately. 

42. Show how to tell whether a surface be vertical or plumb—to plumb a 
long surface accurately. 

43. What is the simplest way to find a vertical line? 

44. Show how to level approximately, without the spirit level. 

45. If there 1s a hole in the ceiling of a room and you wish to bore a hole in 
the floor directly below, how can you find the point on the floor? 

46. How can you make a plumb in an emergency? 

47. Show how to use chalk and line. 

48. Show different ways of laying out symmetrical curved work, lke a 
paddle, model boat, etc. 

49. What is the most important testing instrument—the one to use first? 

50. From what direction should the light come? 

51. Test the edge of a board for straightness: (1) by eye; (2) with straight- 
edge. 

52. Test an edge for squareness: (1) by eye; (2) with square. 

53. Define a flat (plane or true) surface—a warped or winding surface 
—a curled or cupped surface. 

54. Name a piece of work for which the wood must be flat—one for which 
it 1s not necessary that it be flat. 

55. Lf the surface of a piece of wood be absolutely flat, mathematically speak- 
ing, must it also be smooth? 

56. If it be practically flat, taken as a whole, must it also be smooth? 

57. Is a smooth surface necessarily flat? 

58. How do you test for smoothness? 

59. Show how to test a surface for flatness. 

60. Show how to use winding-sticks. Why are long ones better than short 
ones? 

61. Show how to test the evenness of table legs and the like. 

62. Show how to lay out and mark duplicate parts. 


Tools for Laying Out and Testing Work 35 


63. Why should you gauge or square similar marks at one operation? 

64. If your work consists of a number of similar parts or of parts arranged 
in different ways, how can you avoid confusion and error in cutting, fitting, and 
assembling? 

65. Mention any cases in which the expansion and contraction of the wood 
must be taken into consideration when laying out the work. Why? 


TOOLS FOR CUTTING, SHAPING, FITTING, 
ASSEMBLING, ETC. 


74. Edged tools have a basil (bevel) on one side of the 
cutting edge or on both sides. 

75. When a tool like the axe, hatchet, etc., which has a 
thick blade with a basil on each side of the edge, is used for 





splitting, it acts like a wedge and forces the wood to split in 
advance of the cutting edge. Thus the edge cuts only when it 
first strikes the wood. See 578. 

76. Tools like the common chisel, drawicnite: plane, etc., 
have a basil on only one side of the edge. When used ia 


Z a gE, 
Ss 





paring and trimming, the edge cuts all the time and the basil 

bends the shaving out of the way. The common knife has a 

basil on each side, but as the blade is thin the shaving is bent 
36 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 37 


aside so that the edge cuts all the time when whittling. The 
carving chisel is thin, has two basils, and works in the same 
way. The edge of the axe or hatchet also cuts when used for 
light trimming. 

77. Ashearing cut. A cutting edge can be pushed straight 
ahead into the wood, or it can be drawn sideways as it is 
pushed forward. The edge of a razor can be pressed against 
the inside of the thumb without cutting, but if moved length- 
ways it will cut. Even a blade of grass will cut if drawn 





through the hand. A powerful magnifying glass will show 
that the edge of a sharp knife, for instance, is really quite 
rough and ragged, somewhat like a saw, and it will, as a rule, 
cut its way through the wood best if drawn lengthways, like 
a saw, at the same time that it is pushed forward. This is 
called a shearing cut. Usually the softer the material the 
greater the advantage. Owing to the angle at which it works, 
the cutting edge can also be considered as thinner, and so more 
effective, with a shearing stroke. 


Knife 


78. Knife. This tool should have a sharp point for mark- 
ing when you lay out fine work (13). Face the light when 
whittling. Watch the grain carefully to prevent cutting the 
wrong way. Use a shearing stroke when you can, drawing 


38 Woodworking 


the whole length of the blade through the wood (77). In 
whittling a wide surface cut at the edges first. Keeping the 
arm which holds the wood against your body helps to steady 
the work. To sharpen, see 258. 


a 


ee 


79. Wood pushed against a fixed object for steadiness. 





80. Cutting toward thumb, but carrying the knife edge 
past thumb and not against it. 





81. Cutting a notch. Begin in the middle and work out- 
ward. 
Hatchet 
82. Hatchet. There are various kinds. Common uses 
are to trim wood roughly to shape, to remove waste wood, to 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 39 


split, for shingling, etc. The hatchet, axe, etc., when used 
for paring or trimming, cut on the same principle as other 
cutting tools (76), but when used for splitting wood they act 
chiefly on the principle of the wedge (75, 578). 


Chisel 


83. Chisel. The Firmer chisel (89) is usually sufficient 
for the beginner and amateur.’ The secret in paring and 
trimming with the chisel is to push the tool with one hand on 
the handle and control the cutting with the other hand on the 


1 The Firmer chisel is for paring and trimming wood to shape and for 
light mortising (467). The Framing chisel is stouter, for framing, mortis- 
ing, and other heavy work. The Mortise chisel is for heavy timber work. 
The Paring chisel is for paring only. A chisel for heavy work has the 
handle fitted into a socket on the blade. For light work a blade with a 


Ml ZZ 
LZ2 


tang which fits into the handle is common. The common chisel has a basil 
on one side only. The Carving chisel has a basil on each side. The latter 
cuts straight into the wood (A) because it has a basil on each side. The 
common chisel cuts ina curve (B)—cuts under, because it has a basil on one 
side only. 














Gaaawads 
LLPLL 


mae 
LILI LLL ALD 
2 








Showing Skew chisel (at the left), with basil on each side. Used for 
carving and a similar form for turning. A skew chisel sometimes has a 
basil on one side only. Also (at the right) Back-bent chisel. Useful for 
work in corners and angles. The Corner chisel is useful for paring inside 
corners. The Butt chisel has a short blade, convenient for setting hinges, 
paring mortises, etc. 


40 Woodworking 


blade. For most work use the flat side of the blade against 
the wood. Cutting with the basil against the wood is some- 
times necessary, however, and is often the best way to remove 
surplus wood. If the wood cannot be firmly held by the hand 
which also holds the blade, fasten it in the vise, or in some way, 
for it is essential that both hands hold the chisel, and also that 
the wood does not move. Watch the grain and cut so that 
the chips and splitting will be in the waste wood and not in 
the part you wish to keep. For paring and trimming, a large 
chisel is better than a small one. One with bevelled edges is 
often best. Light paring chisels for very fine work in soft 
wood can have a long basil at the cutting edge, sometimes 
34” or 14” long. For heavy work and hard wood the basil 
must be much shorter. Sometimes you can only push the 
chisel straight ahead, but a shearing cut (77) is often best for 
paring. To strike the chisel, always use a mallet for heavy 
work. For light work, where only gentle blows are required, it 
is the common practice with skilled workmen to use the 
hammer (the side of the head), because the damage to the 
chisel handle on ight work is trifling compared with the waste 
of time and the inconvenience of using a mallet. Test your 
chisel work by eye and with other testing instruments. Much 
work once done with the chisel is now done by machine. For 
sharpening, see 248, etc. 





84. From which end should you pare with the chisel? 

85. Trimming to a line. To trim to the curve ab, work 
with the grainfromatob. It often helps to saw off part of the 
waste wood first, as on the lines bc and ef. Push with the 
right hand and control the cutting with the left hand, which 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 41 





also holds the wood firmly. Cut with the grain (292, 293) 
so that the chips come in the waste. 





86. Shearing cut. Begin in position shown at the left. 
As you press down also push from you until the tool is upright 
(85), so that the edge will make a shearing cut (77). Cut with 


42 Woodworking 


the grain so that the chips come in the waste wood. This 
is the way to widen or trim a groove or dado (463, 464); for 
example, as shown at the right, edging along with slight cuts 
of 14” to 14” at a time, and keeping the flat part of the blade 
bearing upon the part already cut.’ A shows position of 
chisel at beginning of cut and B position at end. 


87. Another position for left hand. 





BEGINNING CUT END OF CUT 


88. Shearing cut. Push down and edgeways at the same 
time. Cut with the grain. 


* The edge of a square, or other straight-edge, can sometimes be used as 
a guide for long, straight cuts with the chisel. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 43 





89. Shearing cut made by moving chisel handle sideways. 
The left hand bears against the wood and keeps the chisel 
from getting out of control and cutting too much. 





90. Paring across an end. Chisel handle swung around 
to one side causes a shearing cut. 


44 Woodworking 





oI. Suggestions for use of chisel. 





92. Paring with one hand. 

Summary. To pare with chisel have wood held securely. 
Push tool with one hand, hold back with the other. Cut with 
the grain. Short basil and stout chisel for hard wood and 
rough work, long basil and lighter chisel for fine paring in soft 
wood, medium basil for general work. Use shearing cut when — 
you can. For heavy work, see Mortising, 467. For Carving, 
see 344. 


Gouge 


93. Gouge. This is controlled like the chisel (83). The 
common or ‘‘outside’’ gouge has the basil on the convex side, 
and is useful for many odd kinds of work, like hollowing the 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 45 


hull of a model boat, for pattern-making, etc. The ‘‘inside”’ 
gouge, with the basil on the concave side, is useful to trim holes 
or other openings; for carving, etc. Cut with as long strokes 
as possible.* For sharpening, see 248, 2509, etc. 








94. Shearing cut. Roll the tool around as you push it 
forward (77),—particularly useful with crooked grain and in 
difficult places. 





95. Cutting across the grain. Often the best way to 
remove surplus wood and to ‘‘rough out’’ odd-shaped work. 
Much done in carving. 


Drawknife or Drawshave 


96. Drawknife or Drawshave. For roughing out work, 
cutting away waste wood, and trimming odd shapes. It is apt 
to cut too deeply and to split the wood. Cut with the grain. 
For sharpening, see 248, 263, etc. 


*Sweep. Gouges have many different sizes and degrees of curvature 
or “sweep.” 


46 Woodworking 


97. Trimming to shape with Drawknife. Use flat side 
against the wood to make a straight cut, but often the grain of 





the wood, or the shape to be cut, makes it better to have the 
basil against the wood.* 





98. Shearing cut. Draw the tool sideways across the 
wood while pulling it toward you, or slant the tool and pull it 
straight toward you. 


Saw 


99. Saw. The Cross-cut saw is for sawing across the grain. 
The Rip saw is for sawing with the grain. There are many 


: The waste piece in the right hand end of the vise is to equalize the 
pressure. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 47 


others for various uses, as the Back saw, Compass saw, Turn- 
ing saw, Coping saw, etc.* For sharpening, see 270, etc. 

100. The set. The teeth are all bent outward (called the 
‘‘set’’), one tooth to one side, the next to the other side, so that 


the cut (called the ‘‘kerf’’) is wider than the thickness of the 
saw blade. This lets the saw slip through the wood easily. 
The blade is also taper-ground,—thinner toward the back and 
end. 





1crt. Cross-cutsaw. The most important saw. The teeth 
have sharp edges and sharp points, like little knives. 


102. Enlarged view, looking directly at back of saw, to- 
ward tooth edge, showing how the “‘set’’ extends the “points” 


of the teeth beyond the body of blade, so the latter will not 
bind or wedge in the cut. 


CREEK 
103. If you hold a well-filed cross-cut saw with the teeth 


upward, a needle will slide the length of the blade. 


* Keep saws clean with sperm oil. If rusty, clean with fine emery cloth, 
wipe dry, and oil with sperm oil. 


48 Woodworking 





104. Showing set and cutting action. The sharp points 
make parallel cuts across the wood, and the sharp edges trim 
away the wood between.* 





A—scoring. B—entering deeper and deeper until C—the 
full bite is taken. 





105. Place the work on horses, or in the bench vise, or on 
somefirmsupport. Hold the forefinger of the right hand against 
the side of the handle, as shown below, to steady the saw. 


t The teeth are filed so that the front cutting edge is drawn across the 
wood much as you would draw a knife point across. Green or wet wood 
requires a coarser saw than dry, well-seasoned stock, and soft wood than 
hard. But little set is required for dry hard wood. Soft wood needs a 
wider set to give the blade clearance, because the fibres of the looser- 
textured soft wood are bent aside by the action of the saw teeth and are 
not so cleanly cut as in the hard wood. 

Sizes. Eight to ten points, or seven to nine teeth, to an inch, are suitable 
sizes of teeth for common work. 26” is a popular length. The smaller 
sizes (24”’ or less in length) are called panel saws. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 49 


106. Use the thumb of the left hand to help start the saw 
on the line.t Have your eyes vertically over the line so that 
you can look on both sides of the saw. This will help to keep 
the saw blade at right angles with the surface of the wood. 

107. When the saw is in position, draw it gently toward 
you, and then push it gently from you. After one or two easy 
strokes, remove the left hand from near the teeth, and saw 





with light, steady, rather long strokes, guided by the lines 
you have marked on the upper side and on the edge of the 
wood. When near the end of the cutting hold the loosened 
end of the wood with the left hand to prevent splintering. 


t A notch can be cut in which to start the saw, and can even be carried 
across the whole width of the surface, where extreme accuracy is required, 
but such methods are to be recommended in unusual cases only. Learn 
to do ordinary sawing without such help. 


50 Woodworking 


108. The kerf (saw cut) should come in the waste wood. 
The most workmanlike way, when the end will not need to be 


¥OKERF 





SAWING TO 
Line KNIFE LINE 


planed, is to saw just on the outside of the knife-line you have 
marked,—to ‘‘split the line,’ if you can. When the end must 
be planed, allow perhaps ;,’’ more for planing to the line. 





109. Testing forasquarecut. Learn as quickly as possible 
to saw without having to test in this way. It is easier to follow 
the line on the surface than to cut at right angles to the surface. 





110. If not sawing squarely, bend the blade sideways as 
yousaw. Use the tip of the saw when doing this. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 51 





111. Twisting saw to regain the line. If you run off the 
line, twist the saw to bring it back. Use tip of saw when doing 
this. 

112. Ripsaw. Sawing with the grain. The cross-cut saw 
will saw with the grain also, but the rip saw works more 
quickly. The cross-cut saw is sometimes better for ripping 
through bad knots and hard, crooked-grained spots, and for 
fine work in thin wood, plywood, etc. Try cutting across the 
grain with the rip saw, also with the grain with the cross- 
cutting saw, and see how they act. 


lLr41111 


113. The teeth. Properly filed rip saw teeth (shown en- 
larged) are like little chisels with square, sharp ends, for 
cutting lengthways of the grain only; that is with the grain. * 


au pRB E SSF 
Serta aaaaddd 
114. The set arranges the teeth in two overlapping parallel 


rows. Each tooth is pushed through the wood as you push 


t Five to seven points, or from four to six teeth, to the inch are good 
sizes of teeth for common work. 26’ and 28” are common lengths. 


52 Woodworking 


a chisel (92) and pares off a little from the ends of the fibres 
of the wood; thus the rip saw cuts on the forward stroke only. 


115. Enlarged view of cutting edge of rip saw. 
116. To saw, use the rip saw like the cross-cut saw, as 


already shown. If the edge is to be planed, saw a little (per- 
haps ;,’’) outside the line. 





117. Opening kerf with wedge if it binds the saw. The cut 
shows also the correct slant for sawing. Therefore you can 
usually rip better with the wood placed on horses than when 
held upright in the vise. 





118. Showing wood tipped from you in the vise in order to 
use the saw with the proper slant. 

119. When sawing work like tenons (467, 475), for 
example, after cutting part way as shown in the last illustra- 
tion (118), reverse the piece and saw from the opposite corner 
as shown below, and so on. Thus you have to follow only the 
lines on the surfaces toward you, and the saw is partly guided 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 53 





_ by the kerf already cut. As your skill increases you can saw 


farther without reversing. 


CROSS CUT NEXT 





120. To get out the piece D, saw lengthways (A to B), and 
then crossways (C to B), because this is the way least likely to 
injure or waste the stock. 

121. Back saw. For nice, small work. Has fine cross- 
cutting teeth. Secure the wood in the vise, on the bench- 
hook (8), or otherwise,—flat pieces with the flat side up, 
because you can follow the line better than with the edge up, 
for the back-saw must not be bent. A 10’’ saw with 15 points 
to the inch is good for common work. 





122. Showing a common use of back saw. Begin at the 
edge away from you with the handle raised as shown, adjust 


54 Woodworking 


the saw with the thumb of the left hand, and gradually lower 
the handle as you saw, unti! the teeth cut the whole width of 
the wood. Very small strips can sometimes be sawed best by 
holding the saw in the vise, teeth upward, and passing the 
wood back and forth over the teeth. See also Miire-box (128), 


Joints (447). 


123. Compass (and Keyhole) saw. A narrow, tapering 
saw for cutting curves, and for starting a cut at a distance from 
an edge for the insertion of a hand saw. To saw a hole or 
inside openwork, bore a small hole in which to start the saw 
as shown. If the curve becomes sharp, use the tip of the saw. 
The teeth are a compromise between cross-cut and ripping 
teeth. For very small holes use the smaller Keyhole saw.' 





124. Turning saw (also called Bow saw and Web saw). 
For sawing curves. Hold the saw at one end, not by both ends. 
The teeth can point toward or away from you, according to 

«When you have to make a very sharp turn, run the saw back and forth 


without trying to cut ahead, at the same time slowly turning the saw until it 
has worked its way around. Quick turning may bend or break the saw. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 55 


the kind of work and the way it is held. Use the left hand to 
start the cut in the right place, as with the hand saw (106). 
Turn handles and blade sideways in the frame when necessary. 
Use a light, easy, long stroke. Try to keep the saw blade at 

right angles with the surface of the wood. To saw a hole or 
inside openwork, bore a small hole, unfasten one end of blade, 
pass blade through hole, and re-fasten.* 





125. Scroll saw, Jig saw or Fret saw. Used for fine work 
in thin wood. Teeth must point downward. To follow the 
pattern, turn the wood, not the saw. Run the saw straight up 
and down, as shown.' To saw a hole or inside openwork, bore 
a small hole in which to start the saw (123). 





126. Support for wood when sawing vertically. Clamp to 
bench, and place the wood so that the saw can run up and 


t When you have to make a very sharp turn, run the saw up and down with- 
out trying to cut ahead, at the same time slowly turning the wood until the 
saw has worked its way around. Quick turning may bend or break the saw. 


56 Woodworking 


down in the hole. By attaching a vertical piece this support 
can be held in the vise. 

127. Coping saw, for cutting small curves in fitting mould- 
ings, and for any small scroll work, etc. Used like the scroll 





saw (125). If the work be held in the vise, the teeth can point 
from you. Whether the teeth should point from or toward you 
depends upon which is the face side of the wood and upon how 
the wood is supported or held.* See 517. 

Summary. The set of the teeth should be enough for 
clearance merely. Cross-cut teeth act like little knives, rip 
saw teeth like little chisels. Take position with eyes in line 
with saw blade. Use thumb of left hand to start saw on line. 
Begin slowly. Saw with light, long strokes. Have kerf in 
the waste wood. Use rip saw at about 45° when you can. If 
you run off the line or are not sawing squarely, use tip of saw 
and twist or bend it slightly. Use back saw for fine work only. 
Place side of piece up, rather than the edge, when using back 
saw; and begin, usually, at the farther edge, lowering saw to 
the line as you cut. With narrow bladed saws for curves keep 
saw blade at right angles to surface of wood. If the work 


t Small wheels for toys, checkers, and the like can be quickly made by 
taking, or making, a cylinder of wood and sawing off pieces of the desired 
thickness with the circular saw (585, etc.), or by hand with a mitre-box and 
stop (131). A wheel-cutter can also be used in the bit brace. This is 
merely a cutting knife revolving around a spur for a centre. A cutter for 
making leather washers can be used. Wheels and the like can be made by 
sawing the shape a trifle too large and finishing accurately with the disk 
sander (666). For producing in large numbers, the sawing can be done 
with the Band saw (629) or Jig saw (642), or they can be made entirely by 
turning with the lathe (672). 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 57 


rests on a support, run the saw up and down, and turn the 
wood, not the saw. Adapt size of saw to the work. Cut sharp 
curves slowly. To saw holes, bore small hole for inserting saw. 


Mitre-box 


128. Mitre-box. For sawing at different angles. A metal 
box is best. Much mitre-box work is now done by Trimmers 














1To make an accurate mitre-box requires skill. Pine or beech is good. 
Do not use spruce or any wood liable to warp or twist. Square a line, m n, 
across the top side of the bottom piece, before putting together; and lay off 
from one end of this line a point o on the edge, at a distance equal to the 





width of the bottom, thus fixing the points m,n, and o. Next fasten on the 
sides, square upright lines on the inside of one side from the point m and 
on the inside of the other from the point 0. The diagonal line p q will 
represent the mitre. Saw the kerf with a back saw or a panel saw. Also 


58 Woodworking 


(159), Sanders (664), and the Circular saw (585). See also 
508, etc. 





129. To saw a cylinder, use a mitre-box, or a rectangular 
piece for a guide. 


— 
5 ~~ 





130. Mitre guides for light work. Be sure the surfaces 
and edges are square and true. Mark the lines first on the 
bottom of the upper piece, then on the edges, and lastly on the 
top as shown in footnote (128). See 146, footnote 2. 

131. When many pieces are to be cut of the same length, 
fasten a block or stop to the inside of the mitre-box or to an 
extension of it. Place one end of each piece against this stop 
for each sawing, and the pieces will have the same length. 


square on the inside two upright lines opposite each other, draw a line across 
the tops of the sides to meet these lines, and make a kerf, as shown by the 
middle line in the first illustration, for square sawing. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 59 


See Circular saw (606). For planing and trimming ends, see 
Mitring (510), Trimmer (159) and Sander (664). 


Plane 


132. Plane. Probably the plane was originally merely a 
chisel stuck through or attached to a block for smoothing 
surfaces. 





133. The Jack plane is for general work and for roughing 
off surfaces. It will do for ordinary work.’ A shorter ‘‘junior”’ 
Jack plane is useful for small work. 


t Learn the adjustments from the plane itself. The plane-iron or “‘bit”’ 
does the cutting. The bottom of the plane is called the ‘‘sole,” the wedge- 
shaped space above the cutting edge is the ‘‘throat,’’ and the slot in the sole 
is the ‘‘mouth.”’ 































































































The cap-iron, which has a dull edge, is screwed to the back of the plane- 
iron. If the cap-iron were not used when planing against the grain or for 


60 Woodworking 





134. Other planes. The Smoothing plane is best for 
smoothing a surface and for making small pieces flat. The 
Block plane (152) is small, light, and cheap. Useful for plan- 
ing ends, and for work which has to be held in one hand while 
the plane is used with the other hand. It has no cap-iron 
(see footnote) because it is meant for planing end-grain. The 
cutting-iron is set at an acute angle and has the basil on the 
upper side. The Joznter is long, for straightening, flattening, 
and truing long edges and surfaces (144). The Fore-pblane 


cross-grained wood, the surface would be apt to be rough, because the 
shavings would tend to split down into the wood ahead of the cutting edge. 










\) 
ff) 


ey 


\| AB?” © EEE 


Bee Toes 





tt tn ear r at  L e EN Aar a 


eee 





The cap is added to bend the shavings up against the forward edge of the 
mouth, so that they can be cut off smoothly before splitting begins. 

Screw cap-iron firmly to plane-iron so that the edge is from 1/;6”’ (or 
occasionally a little more) to 1/¢,’’ back from the cutting edge of the plane- 
iron. It must fit tightly to the plane-iron, and be screwed to it firmly so 
that shavings cannot pass between them. For fine work and hard, crooked- 
grained wood the cutting edge should project beyond the cap-iron less 
than for coarse work and soft wood. With a wide opening at the mouth 
the shavings, when the grain is bad, will not be bent up by the cap-iron 
in time, because the angle against which to bend them is not near enough; 
therefore for fine work with hard, crooked-gruined, or knotty wood have 
the opening at the mouth narrow, as just shown, the iron set fine, and the 
cap near the cutting edge. Upon removing the cutting iron from the plane 
you can see how tne ‘‘frog,”” upon which the plane iron rests, can be moved 
forward or backward. For general work the cutting-edge should be 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 61 


is a short Jointer. There are many planes for special uses.? 

Some workmen still prefer the old-fashioned wooden planes. 
There is a desirable lightness and smoothness about their 
action. The wooden stocks, however, become warped or worn, 
sooner or later, and then the sole has to be “‘jointed’”’ or made 





sharpened either squarely across or rounding very slightly. The Jack-plane 
was originally used for rough planing only and the edge was rounding, leav- 





ing a series of hollows (as shown, exaggerated). It is still sometimes so used 
but rough stock is now planed almost always by machine. 

The Router, for smoothing the bottoms of grooves or other depressions, 
the Plow, Dado-plane, Rabbet-plane, Matching-planes, Circular plane, Bull- 


Y 


# 





a 
¢ 


st 


ROUTER 





nosed plane, Universal plane, etc., are still used for special purposes; but 
machinery now does most of their work, except in emergencies. Their 
use is easily learned. The importance of these special planes depends 
upon what kind of work you are doing and whether you can have the 
advantage of machinery. The Toothing plane is used in veneering (580) 
and to prepare other surfaces for gluing. See 430. This plane is also 
sometimes used in smoothing very crooked-grained surfaces which are hard 
to smooth witha plane. Toothing breaks up the fibres so that the surface 
can be smoothed with the scraper. A finely sharpened plane iron is sup- 
posed however to smooth the most refractory grain, but this requires skill in 
sharpening and adjusting the tool. 


62 Woodworking 


flat. Iron planes are easier to adjust and to keep in order. 
The iron of a wooden plane, if it has no adjustments, is raised 
by tapping on top of the fore end (or on the rear end of the 
smoothing plane), and fixed by tapping on top of the “‘chip”’ 
or wedge which holds the iron in place. The iron is lowered 
by tapping on its upper end and then on the chip. If the 
cutting edge projects unevenly, tap on one edge of the upper 
part of the iron. For sharpening plane irons, see 248, etc. 





135. Adjusting the cutting edge. Face the light, turn the 
plane over, and look along the sole. The edge should project 
only about */,,”’ or less, usually. Adjust by turning the round 
nut in front of the handle to the right or left. For very rough 
work, or where much wood has to be removed, the edge can 
project a little more, drawing it back for the final planing. 


Wi) 


136. If one corner projects more ha the other so that the 
planing will be uneven, move the lever, just under the top of 
the plane-iron, to the right or left until the edge projects 


si 


137. ‘*Planer-marks”’ on machine-planed stock (see 651). 
For nice work these must be smoothed off by hand or by 
scraping or sanding machines, lest they show when the work 











Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 63 


is finished. For some things machine-planed stock is smooth 
enough. 





PLANING WITH THE GRAIN 





' PLANING AGAINST THE GRAIN 


138. To plane the edge of a board. First fasten the wood 
in the bench-vise, or otherwise, so as to plane with the grain, 
if possible. 





BG 


pC /D 


139. In which direction should you plane each edge? 





140. Place the wood iow in the vise, for it is hard to plane 
much higher than the top of the bench. A hand screw can be 
used to support the end of a long piece or of a wide board so 
that the edge can be kept low. 


64 Woodworking 


141. Operation of planing. The edge must be planed: 
(1) straight, and (2) square with the side of the piece. Look 
along the edge (56) to see where the most planing is needed. 





Hold plane as shown, with fingers of left hand against the 
side of the wood to help guide the plane and keep it steady. 

To make the edge straight the plane must be kept fiat on the 
wood for the whole stroke. Stand at the rear end (the end to 
the right as you face the bench), with one foot in advance, and 
begin to plane at the rear end. Plane slowly. Watch the 
mouth of the plane to tell by the shavings how well you are 
planing. Keep the plane lengthways of the wood.* ‘Take 
long, steady strokes, the final ones the length of the wood if 
possible. ? 

142. To keep the plane flat on the wood, press down on the 
forward part of the plane with the left hand during the first 
part of the stroke, and on the rear part with the right hand 


«Tt can be turned slightly, sometimes, provided the whole length of the 
sole be kept on the wood. A very small piece can sometimes be planed 
best by turning the plane upside down and passing the piece over the cutting 
edge, using care to avoid planing the fingers. 


RC 


eee 


2 Feathering the strokes (greatly exaggerated). [f you have to start 
or end a stroke at any other point than the end of the piece, the rear end of 
the plane can be lifted slightly from the wood at the beginning and end of 
the stroke, thus tapering the ends of the shaving. A light, easy movement 
in placing and raising the plane is all that is necessary. This is not easy to 
describe but can be learned by experiment. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 65 





p =o . 
y, ge FUERE LY: voy 


SS] 
1 






during the last part of the stroke, removing the left hand at 
the end. 

143. Result of not keeping plane flat on the wood at each 
end of the edge. The plane is also apt to jump and chatter, 
leaving hollows and ridges across the surface. Beginners often 








plane with a rocking motion which produces the rounded edge 
shown above. Therefore, if you have this tendency, plane as 
if you were trying to make the edge hollowing instead of 
straight. 

144. A long plane (Jointer) makes a straighter edge or 
surface than a short one (Smoothing-plane), because the former 
planes away the high spots until the surface is straight, while 
the latter can follow the irregularities of the surface. After 
planing a little, test for straightness (56, 57) and for square- 








ness (58). If not straight, plane the high places, test again, 


and so on until straight. To test the squareness of the edge, 
Square from the edge to the side or face, because any error can 


66 Woodworking 


be detected better by the long blade on the flat surface than if 
the blade be held across the edge. 





145. Planing high side of edge. If not square, move the 
plane over sideways so as to plane the high side only. Try to 
keep the plane flat, and steady it with the fingers of the left 
hand (141) against the wood. If the edge of the plane-bit is 
very slightly rounded, it will take off a shaving a little thicker 
on one edge than on the other. Thus by moving the plane to 
the high side the edge of the wood can be made square. 
Attachable guides for planing squarely or at any other angle 
can be bought. 

146. Planing (jointing) edges for glue joints is now done 
with the Jointer (655) or the Circular Saw (604). Before 
planing, arrange the pieces so that the grain will run the same 





Mice 


GRAIN RUNNING THE SAME PIECES MARKED TO PREVENT 
WAY MISTAKES 


way in each, if you can, because the surface will plane and 
finish better, after gluing, than if the grain runs in opposite 
directions*; and mark the edges which are to join, to prevent 

Sometimes, however, with handsomely figured wood, the pieces are 


arranged with regard to appearance only, even though extra work may be 
required when smoothing. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 67 


mistakes when gluing. The best way is to glue the boards in the 
rough, before the surfaces have been planed at all, and after the 
glue is hard plane by machine or hand to the required thickness. 

To plane the edges by hand, do them separately, from 
opposite sides,—that is, if the edge of the first piece is placed in 
the vise with the marked side of the board toward you, plane 
the next piece with the marked side against the bench, or away 
from you. This is to offset any unevenness in setting the 
plane-iron, tipping of the plane to one side, or warped condi- 
tion of the pieces. Do not use the try square to test the edge 
when making glue-joints, but put one piece in the vise with the 
jointed edge up, place the next piece on it, and see if the edges 
touch throughout.” Strike the under board slightly to see if 
the upper one shakes or tips sideways or endways. Also slide 
the top board lengthways, for a sensation of adhesion or 
suction can be felt when the edges fit. Press down at the 
ends to see if they touch. If the edges do not touch through- 
out, one or both must be planed with thin, careful strokes until 
they fit, for the joint will not be good otherwise.” For gluing, 
see 426, etc. 


1 It is common to make the edges slightly concave lengthways, so that 
they touch at the ends only, to be forced together for their whole length 
with clamps (229, etc.) at the center, after applying glue. This is probably 
the best way in many cases, but it is a question whether, with thoroughly 
seasoned stock, particularly with short pieces, there can be anything 
better than two straight edges fitting at every point and clamped for the 
whole length. 

2 Shooting-boards or Jack-boards can be used for jointing and planing edges 
straight, and at different angles, particularly for short, thin stock. The 
board is laid against a stop and the plane used on its side. Formerly shoot- 
ing-boards for planing edges, mitres, etc., were in common use and can still 
be obtained if machinery be unavailable; but machines are now used. 


68 Woodworking 


147. Testing surface for flatness, with any straight-edge. 
Not only must the edges fit, as already shown, but the sides 





RIGHT ; WRONG 


of the boards must form a flat surface, must be in the same 
plane. 

148. To plane a broad surface, as the side of a board, hold 
the wood firmly on the bench with bench-stops (3), or in the 
vise, or in some secure way, and so that you can plane with the 
grain, if possible. Plane in the way already described for 
planing an edge, except that you grasp the knob of the plane 
with the left hand instead of holding the fingers at the side. 
Of course you have to keep moving the plane over from side 
to side in order to plane the whole surface. Look across the 
surface, or test with straight-edge, to see where the most 
planing is needed. The edge of the straight-edge can be 
chalked to show the high spots. 





149. Planing a winding or warped surface. Plane the 
highest places first. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 69 


150. Testing surface with plane. Apply the edge of the 
plane, or any other straight-edge, crossways, diagonally, and 


ff \\ ~ 
AIS ~ 


Gmay 
S 


q 


lengthways, and you can tell whether the surface is flat. If 
not flat, plane the high places, test again, and so on until it is 
flat throughout. 





P< 


151. Traversing. Planing across the grain, or diagonally, 
when the wood is very rough or when much wood has to be 
planed off. The finishing strokes should be with the grain. 





152. Planing end-grain. Fasten the wood low in the vise. 
Plane partly across from one edge, then reverse the piece and 
plane partly across from the other edge. This is to prevent 
chipping at the edge. Press down on the front of the plane to 


70 Woodworking 


keep it flat on the wood. The Block-plane (134) is best, but 
the Smoothing-plane (134), or the Jack-plane (133) can be 
used. After planing, test with square (58), but if planing to 
a line, stop when you reach it. For fine work a knife line 
Squared around the piece helps.* 





t Sometimes a piece of waste wood is temporarily placed at the farther 
end to prevent chipping, or the farther edge of a narrow piece can be 
trimmed off before planing. 





Planing end on bench-hook or jack-board, but planing by this method 
should be carefully tested with the square. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 71 


154. To plane the edge of a box, and in similar cases, keep 
the sole of the plane on both side and end at each corner, to 
prevent bruising with the end of the plane. 


pe 


155. To make an octagonal stick by planing. First make 
it square in section. Mark an octagon on the end.* Gauge 
lines, with pencil, on the four sides of the stick from the angles 





* To construct an octagon within a given square.—Let ABCD be the given 
square. Draw the diagonals AC and DB intersecting at E. From A, B, C, 
D, as centres, with radius AE, or BE, etc., describe arcs cutting the sides of 
the square in F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M. Draw LH, GK, IM, and FJ; and 
LHGKIMJF will be the octagon required. 


72 Woodworking 


of the octagon. Plane the four angles to these lines. A jig' or 
cradle to hold the piece is useful for the planing. When the 
stick is square in section, by measuring one-half the diagonal 
of the end, the lines on the sides can be drawn without com- 
pleting the octagon on the end. 

For Squaring stock to dimensions, see 296. 

Summary. Learn adjustments from the plane itself. Cap- 
iron bends shaving for smooth cutting. Adjust plane to 
make fine shavings, except for rough work. ‘“‘Planer marks”’ 
must be removed for nice work. Have wood securely held. 
Plane with the grain if possible. Begin at rear end of the 
wood. Keep plane flat on the wood. Plane slowly, with 
long, steady strokes. Watch the shavings. Keep plane 
lengthways of the work. Use a long plane to secure straight- 
ness. Short plane for smoothness merely. Test by eye, 
square, edge of plane, etc. Plane high spots first. To reduce 
wide surfaces, plane crossways or diagonally first, then length- 
ways. Plane ends from both edges. Shearing cut good for 
bevelling or rounding ends. 


Bead Cutter 


156. Bead cutter. A tool for scraping beading, reeds, and 
the like, can be bought; or made by filing the reverse of the 
shape required on the edge of a piece of saw-blade steel and 
inserting this blade in a kerf in one end of a piece of wood like 
that shown. The tool is pushed forward like a scraper. Such 


« Jigs or fixtures to hold or guide either the work or the tool, or both, are 
in regular use for quantity production, enabling an operation to be repeated 
many times with accuracy and speed. Usually it is not worth while to 
contrive a jig for doing a piece of work once. Ifa difficult operation is to be 
repeated frequently, it is best to make a jig, if practicable. The use of a jig 
is usually a purely mechanical or routine performance,—productive from the 
point of view of efficiency, but not educative. Contriving jigs, however, 
calls for much inventive effort and ingenuity, besides mechanical skill, 
and is distinctively educative. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 73 





work is now usually done by machine, but the principle of the 
bead cutter is often applicable to problems in hand work. 


Spokeshave 


157. Spokeshave. For shaping and smoothing curved 
or irregular surfaces but not for straight flat work, for which 
the sole is too short (see plane, 144). Originally for shaping 
wheel-spokes. Frequently used to follow the drawknife. 
Much of the work of the spokeshave is now done by machinery, 
but it is still an invaluable tool for some kinds of work. The 
cutter should project very little, as with the plane (135). 
For sharpening, see 248, etc. 


Wh By J 


158. Using spokeshave. Grasp firmly and push forward 
steadily so that it will cut like a plane. It can usually be 
controlled best when pushed from you, but it can be pulled 
toward you if necessary. A shearing cut is often best (77). 


74 Woodworking 


Trimmer 


159. Trimmer. Cuts accurately at a variety of angles. 
The adjustments are simple. Trims with thin slicing cuts, 
using a shearing stroke (77). Do not cut over %” for soft 





wood or 7,” for hard. The knives must be kept sharp. Have 
an extra set, so that sharp ones can always bein use. Fasten 
small machines securely. If much wood is to be removed, use 
a saw or other tool first, finishing with the trimmer. Large 
machines stand on a base. Much of the work of trimmers 
can be done with Sanders (664). See Mztre-box (128), Mitring 
(508, etc.), Paring (293), Bevelling (318). 


Boring tools 


160. Boring tools. Common boring tools are the Brace 
and bits or drills, Automatic or Push drills, Breast, and Hand 
drills, Gimlets, Augers, Brad-awls, etc. See also Boring 
machines (669). 


=i 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 75 


Bit brace and bits or drills. 


PENS 


161. Inserting bitin Brace. Hold the chuck 
(A) in one hand, and revolve the handle (B) of 
the brace with the other hand until the jaws (C) 
have opened enough to put in the bit. Insert 
bit and revolve brace the other way until bit 
is held firmly. To take it out, reverse the pro- 
cess. a 

162. Principle of the auger-bit. The point SS 
is a screw a (called the worm) which screws itself 
into the wood, as you turn the brace, and draws 
the whole bit toward the wood. When the scoring 
nibs 6 touch the wood they make a circular cut. 
Then the cutting-lips c pare off shavings. So pres- 
sure on the bit-stock is not needed usually,—unless 
the bit is dull. For sharpening, see 264. 

163. Single thread 
screw point for quick 
boring. For common & 
work in soft wood, in end- io 
grain, or gummy wood." 
Also standard double g 
@, thread screw point, for — 
fine work. Bores more 
easily and leaves a smoother hole than the single thread. 

164. Sizes. The number on the shank of an auger-bit is 
the numerator of a fraction of which the denominator is 16, 
and indicates the size. If the number be 8, the bit is 3%’’ in 
diameter, that is, %’’. 

165. Starting bit at exact point. For accurate work with 
the auger bit, particularly in hard wood, before beginning to 





ey 








* There are other fast-cutting bits for common work,—the Irwin with a 
“solid centre,’ the Ford with but one nib and one lip. For small sizes the 
gimlet bit bores easily, but tends to split the wood if thin or near an 
edge. 


76 Woodworking 


bore, punch a little hole to start the point or worm of the bit 
at the exact point, as it sometimes works off to one side. 





166. Placing point or ‘‘ worm ”’ of bit at exact spot. Then 
raise brace to proper position for boring. 


WATCH BIT 
FROM ABOVE 


~ WATCH BIT 
a=. SIDE 


167. To bore squarely (at right angles to the surface), it is 
well to have the surface of the wood either horizontal or ver- 
tical. Lines squared across the surfaces help. After beginning 
to bore, sight from above or from in front and then from one 
side to see whether you are boring squarely. Keep sighting 
until the bit is well started. For important work have some- 
one watch from one side while you watch from above or in 
front. 











168. The ratchet brace can bore with only partial revolu- 
tions of the handle, and can thus be used where a complete 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 77 


turn of the handle cannot be made. Sometimes in boring a 
horizontal hole, it helps to use the ratchet brace, boring with 
downward strokes only, instead of turning the brace all the 
way around. 





169. Boring vertically while looking down onto the work 
and moving around into different positions. 


170. Testing accuracy of boring with square. Learn as 
quickly as possible to bore squarely by eye. See also Dowelling 
_ jrg (504). 

171. To withdraw the bit from a hole, give the brace a 
turn backward to loosen the worm or point. Then pull the 
bit straight out, at the same time turning the brace as if 
boring. This brings out the chips, but use care not to tear 
the wood at the mouth of the hole. 


78 Woodworking 


172. To bore through the wood. When the worm or 
point begins to prick through, stop boring, turn the wood, and 





bore back. This is to prevent splintering when the bit comes 
through but use care or you may tear the wood where the bit 
first entered. For rough work you can bore through into a 
piece of waste instead of reversing the wood. 

173. With a deep hole in hard wood, particularly in end 
grain, pull the bit out once in a while to clear out the hole. 
When the position of a long hole must be exact on both sides 
of the wood, mark the point for the centre of the hole on both 
sides, and then bore from each- side until the holes meet.” 
For example, boring a tube. In such a case, draw a line 
lengthways on the surface if possible. 


—_— — — oo ~ 





Ze "~ 


174. To avoid splitting. Fasten a small piece tightly in 
the vise, or a handscrew, while boring. Bore hole (A) before 


«In order to have the hole straight and at the same time at right angles 
to each side of the piece, the sides must be parallel. If the hole be long, the 
two borings may not meet exactly, but can be straightened with a hot iron 
rod, or some other tool. For large work of this kind use an auger with a 
handle. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 79 


sawing the curved side, otherwise the short grain near the hole 
may split when you bore. 
































175. Expansive bit for large holes. For large holes in hard 
wood, borea ‘‘pilot”’ hole first with 1¢” bit. When boring with 
an expansive bit would be too hard, use an auger with handle. 


* 


* 


176. For a larger hole than can be bored, use a saw (123, 
etc.). If you have no saw for curved work, bore small holes 
just inside the line and trim to the line with gouge, spokeshave, 
or whatever tool may be adapted to the size of the opening,— 
a method for emergencies only. | 





177. Counterboring. Boring two holes in this way is 
often done to set the head of a screw or bolt below the surface. 
Bore the larger hole first. See 569, 555, 186. If you have 
begun a hole with an auger bit, you can continue it with a 
smaller one but not with a larger one, because in the latter 
case there would be no wood for the worm or point to screw 
into (162). In such a case plug the hole with wood or use a 
metal plug with soft centre. 


80 Woodworking 


178. The twist drill is excellent, does not split the wood 
readily, and will bore in metal also. It breaks easily if bent. 
Ranges in size from 74’’ to 4’. The twist bit for wood cuts 


SASS SA 






































well and is not easily broken, but is hard to start exactly at the 
desired point, is liable to work off to one side, and bends easily. 
Ranges in size from #5"’ to 3$’’.. For sharpening twist drills 
and bits, see 264. The Gimlet bit bores easily but tends to 
split thin wood or near an edge. The hand gimlet is also still 
used, although nearly superseded. 

179. The Forstner bit can be used to bore in end-grain, for 
shallow holes in thin wood, in knotty places, to follow a smaller 
bit, to make rectangular or elliptical holes, etc. Bores slowly, 
as it has no worm. Makes a hole with smooth bottom.’ 





t The centre-bit is a useful tool, particularly for very thin stock. The 
spear-like point a acting as a centre, the point b cuts a deep ring, and the 


edge c, which is bent so as to form a flat chisel, scoops out the pieces of wood, ~ 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 81 





180. Bit-gauges, of various kinds, stop boring at a given 
depth. 


181. If you have no bit-gauge, measure with a rule held 
beside the bit, or cut a stick. To make a tube is more accurate 
if many holes are to be bored. For rough work you can tell 
approximately by turning the brace the same number of times 


for each hole. 


= H 
RG 
i! } i 
2 





182. Countersinking hole for head of screw with a rose 
countersink used in bit-brace. 





and so a round and smooth hole is made. This bit does not cut very well 
with the grain of the wood. It can be sharpened with a small oil-stone. 
It is well to bore a trial hole in a piece of waste wood when accuracy is 
required because the spur is not exactly in the centre, so that the diameter 
of the hole cut is a trifle greater than that of the bit. 


82 Woodworking 




































































































































































“FLAT METAL COUNTERSINK 


183. Other forms of countersinks. Reamers for enlarging 
holes are useful. A countersinking gauge will stop the 
countersinking at the desired depth, as is desirable if there are 
many holes, for screws look best when sunk uniformly. 

184. A template can be made if holes are to be bored in 
many pieces in the same relative positions, so that the points 
for all the holes can be found without measuring for each 
separately. The bevel can be used when boring at any angle, 
like the square as shown in 109. There are various angle- 
boring and extension appliances for boring in places difficult to 
reach. 





185. Boring where two pieces join, so that one-half of the 
hole will be in each piece. Mark line for centre of hole across 
each piece, make a very shallow saw-kerf in each, clamp pieces 
together, and bore from each side. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 83 








PLUG CUTTER 


186. Covering the head of a screw with a plug of wood is 
easily done with these tools.t See also 177. 


Breast and Hand Drills, etc. 


187. Breast and hand drills. Very efficient. Can be 
used often where a ratchet-brace would otherwise be needed. 
Such a tool can be changed from a plain drill to a left hand 


Hy 
S/S YANKEE N°ISSS —"F 





ratchet; to a right-hand ratchet; to a double right-hand ratchet, 
when any movement of crank, forward or backward, causes the 
drill to cut continuously. Small hand drills are useful for 
small holes. Screw-drivers can also be used. 


* Hollow augers, and spoke pointers are occasionally useful. 


84 Woodworking 





188. Push brace. Takes auger bits up to 4” and other 
bits and drills; also screw-driver bits (222). 





189. Reciprocating drill. Grasp the ‘‘driver’” in the 
right hand and move it backward and forward. ‘The drill 
turns continuously to the right. Holds any drill with straight 
shank ;3;’’ diameter or less. Can be used for drilling metal 
also. 





190. Automatic push drill. Very convenient for small 
holes. 





RIGHT POSITION WRONG POSITION 


191. Brad awl and gimlet. Superseded to a great extent 
by the boring contrivances already shown, but still frequently 
useful. The awl should be not quite so large as the nail to be 
driven. Bore with the cutting edge across the grain, lest the 
wood be split by the wedge-shaped edge. The gimlet is apt to 
split the wood near an edge. 

Summary. To bore squarely sight from different directions. 
The worm or screw of the auger bit draws bit into the wood 
while the nibs and lips score and pare the wood. To bore 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 85 


through, stop when bit pricks through, and bore back from the 
other side carefully. Twist. drills and bits, breast and hand 
drills, and automatic borers very desirable. 


File 


192. File. Fasten the wood firmly. Hold file handle with 
right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end with left 





hand, thumb uppermost, or with the fingers or palm. Push 
straight forward with a long, steady stroke. Lift from the 
wood, bring back, push forward again, and so on. Press on 
the forward stroke only. To cut with a backward stroke dulls 
the file. The file should be used only where you cannot use 
the clean-cutting edged tools, not instead of them. Do not 
file metal with a file for wood. Press lightly when using a new 
file. To clean a file, soak in hot water and brush with file- 


LOLI 


cleaner or stiff brush. The half-round, ‘‘slab-sided”’ or cabinet 
file is the most useful, and sometimes the round (tapering) or 
*“‘rat-tailed’’ shape.* A half round combination of file and 
rasp (193) is useful. 


Rasp 


193. Rasp. The half-round rasp for wood is studded with 
points, which tear off the wood more quickly, but more roughly, 


t When the teeth are cut in one direction only, a file is called single-cut, 
but when there are two oblique rows crossing each other, it is double-cut. 
These ridges incline toward the end or point of the tool, so that the file, 
like the rip saw, plane, and scraper, cuts when pushed forward. 


86 Woodworking 


than the file (192). Useful to work irregular objects roughly 
into shape, but not a tool to begin with, for the learner is apt to 
prefer it to the edged-tools which he should be learning to use. 
Follow with a file or other finer tool to get a smooth surface. 


Scraper 


194. Scraper. The cabinet scraper is a thin piece of very 
hard steel and is used after the plane, for fine work, to make 
the surface smoother. Scrapers are made with handles, and 
are also set in stocks like planes. These are good for some 
work, but the hand scraper is best for the beginner. Scrapers 
with curved edges, and also pieces of glass, are good for rounded 
surfaces. Smoothing on a large scale is done by Scraping 
machines (721) or Sanders (664) 


195. Using cabinet-scraper. Spring it slightly with the 
hands, so that the middle part of the edge, but not the corners, 
will touch the wood. Hold as nearly upright as will cut well, 
and push steadily from you. Raise from the wood, bring back, 
push again, and so on. 





SURFACE TO BE SCRAPEO 


196. The turned-over edge shown (exaggerated) cuts, 
rather than scrapes, fine shavings. Examine the edge with a 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 87 


powerful magnifying glass. It cuts only on the forward stroke. 
Each edge can be used. Scrape in any direction that will give 
the best result, but make the final strokes with the grain, asa 
rule. Test for smoothness by passing the fingers over the 
surface. When the scraper ceases to make shavings and only 
scrapes dust, itis dull. To sharpen, see 265, 266, 267. 


Sandpaper 


197. Sandpaper and other abrasives. Do all cutting 
before sanding, for the grit dulls the tools. Sand with the 
grain, as arule.* Use fine sandpaper for nice work. Do not 
sand joints by hand. Some joints can be sanded with sanding 
machines. Most sanding is now done by machine (664, etc.). 
The fineness of sandpaper is indicated by numbers. OO is as 
fine and 1/4 as coarse as is needed for ordinary work. A sheet 
can be torn into smaller pieces by a straight edge or over the 
edge of the bench. Garnet paper is excellent. Steel wool is 
good for rubbing off and cleaning old finish. 





198. Sanding flat surface and edge with block of wood to 
make surface even and to prevent rounding edges. Cork 


«Sanding across the grain, except with rounded surfaces, makes satis- 
factory finishing hard, because such parts absorb an excess of stain 


88 Woodworking 


makes a good block for fine work. A block of wood can be 
faced with cork, rubber, or leather. 





199. Using paper without block for flat surface and edge. 





SAND PAPER 


200. Sanding small end or a little piece. Rub it steadily 
over a piece of sandpaper laid flat on the bench. Reverse the 
piece, rub again, and so on. 





201. Sanding round or curved surface. Draw paper back 
and forth across the grain, around the piece. Also showing 
(at the right) finishing curved edge with the grain. Thick 
rubber, or leather, makes a good block for curved surfaces. * 


1 Small articles such as checkers, if there are many of them, are often 
smoothed and polished by revolving (“‘tumbling’’) for a few hours in a 
drum together with scraps of wax. The drum is merely a cylindrical or 
polygonal box kept revolving. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 89 


For fine work to be nicely finished the angles of the edges 
(arrises) should be very slightly rounded—a mere touch, less 
than y',’’—to prevent rubbing through the sharp angles when 
finishing (397, etc.). There is a cornering tool for slightly 
rounding edges. 


Hammer, Nailing, etc. 


202. Hammer and nails. The common claw hammer has 
the face, which strikes the nail, either flat or slightly rounded 
(‘‘bell-faced’’). The latter is less likely to dent the wood. 


— 


BELL-FACED 
FLAT-FACEO 


Use a heavy adz-eye hammer for heavy work and a light 
hammer for small, light work. There are many special ham- 
mers for upholstering, tack-driving, riveting, etc. 

Nails, etc. Wire nails are now used for most purposes. 
Besides the common ones with flat heads, there are casing, 
finishing, wrought, cut, brads, etc.* 


t The old terms three-penny, eight-penny, etc., indicate the size. 

Distinguish between the nails with broad flat heads and those with 
smaller round heads. The smaller sizes of the latter are brads. If the 
nails are to be set (219), use round-headed ones, as the flat heads make 
rough holes. Copper or galvanized nails are best for boat building, copper 
being preferable, particularly for salt water. Escutcheon pins are used 


tan 


for keyhole escutcheons, small ornamental hinges, etc. Dogs hold parts 
together, as framing timbers, the staves of a built-up column, etc. If the 
points slant slightly outward (draw-dogs), they will draw the parts together. 


90 Woodworking 


Re 
thy Hitt 
H Hh 
{| Weiniiely: 
We ae 


MH I, 
HN 


qi 





ae 


UN AT Hts 


Corrugated fasteners are useful. 

203. Nailing. Hold hammer near end of handle.* Use wrist 
motion, with some elbow movement. Try to strike squarely 
on top of nail. Use light blows until nail is started straight. 





Nails probably hold better when driven home by light blows 
than by only one or two violent strokes. For rough work, 
drive the head of the nail flush with the wood. For nice work, 
stop just before it is flush and drive it in with the nail set (219). 
If the wood be hard, bore a hole slightly smaller than the nail 
(208); also, in soft wood if there seems to be danger of splitting. 

204. Position for starting nails when nailing a box and in 
similar cases. Place the piece to be nailed on the bench, stand 


* Occasionally it will do to hold it nearer the head, as in driving very fine 
brads in delicate work. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 91 


in line with the edge, and drive the nails until the points prick 
through the wood. For nice work square a light pencil mark 





in order to start the nails in line. Avoid nailing very near an 
end or edge, particularly in thin wood, to prevent splitting. 





205. Nailing the pieces together. Put one piece in the 
vise and nail the other to it. By standing in line with the edge 
as shown you can tell whether you are driving the nails straight, 
so that the points will not come out through either side of the 
‘board. If a nail is driving badly, pull it out and drive in 
another place. Ifa nail becomes bent, pull it and use a straight 
one. Keep face of hammer head free from glue or oil. 


206. Showing nail slanting so that it will come out at the 
side. Pull it, and if straight drive in another place. If bent, 


92 Woodworking 


use a straight one. It is natural in such a case to tap the upper 
part of the nail until it is vertical or in the line you wish it to 
go; but if this bends the nail, as often happens, it will be even 
more likely to break through the side than before, as shown. 





207. To drive a nail in a slight curve, on the principle just 
shown, file the end like a common chisel and the point will tend 
to work off toward the straight side (83, footnote). To drive 
in a sharper curve, bend the end of the nail more or less and 
it will driveinacurve. Try ona waste piece. 

208. Bore holes for the nails for the best work. A nail 
holds better when driven in a hole slightly smaller (.;’’ to 
zs’) than its diameter than when driven without a hole. Use 
longer nails for driving into end-grain than for side-grain, 
because end-grain does not hold nails so strongly as side- 
grain. For box work and in similar cases, the length of the 
nails should be somewhat more than twice the thickness of the 
board holding the heads. 





RIGHT 


WRONG 


209. Nailing cut nails. These taper on two sides and 
should be driven so that their wedge shape cannot split the 
wood. You can tell how to place them by feeling, for two 
sides are smooth and go with the grain of the wood. Cut 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 93 


nails are best for shingling, unless you use galvanized wire 
ones. 

210. Cement-coated nails hold better than smooth ones. 
Smooth nails hold better than barbed ones. 





211. Driving slender nails in hard wood. The safest 
way is to bore holes slightly smaller than the nails (208). 
Touch the points to paraffine or wax, which some keep in a 
hole in the end of the hammer handle. Soap will do but may 
cause rust. Holding the nail between three fingers or with 
pincers sometimes helps. In extraordinary cases a nail can 
be driven through a waste block of soft wood first, and, when 
driven as far as possible, the block can be split off and the 
nail driven home.! 





BLIND NAIL TOOL 





212. ‘*Sliver’’ or secret nailing. Raise a shaving with 
narrow gouge or chisel, or use the blind nail tool shown, which 
can be attached toa 14” chisel. Drive thenail in thedepression, 
apply hot glue, and rub the shaving back into place with the 
face of a hammer, or with sandpaper over a block, until stuck. 

tIn an emergency, if you cannot bore a hole, a wire nail or brad may be 


less likely to split the wood if you cut off the end, sharpen it on two opposite 
sides like a brad-awl (191), and drive with edge across the grain. 


94 Woodworking 


213. Staggering. In nailing cleats, or in similar cases, 
‘“‘stagger’’ the nails, that is, arrange them in a zigzag way 
(366). This usually distributes them to the best advantage, 
enables you to use more nails, and lessens the danger of split- 
ting the wood. This also applies to screws. 





214. Blind-nailing leaves no holes on the surface, as in 
floors of matched-boards. Each board is nailed slantingly 
just above the tongue. This holds it down and also draws it 
toward the adjoining board. The grooved edge of the next 
board conceals the nailing. See Floor-laying (421), Sheathing 


(525). 





215. Toe-nailing. Driving on a slant. Sometimes there 
is no other way to nail. Studs in house-building are fastened 
to the sills by toe-nailing. Sometimes toe-nailing is done to 
increase the strength, as in the box shown above; but experi- 
ments at the Forest Products Laboratory show that, contrary 
to common belief, slanting the nails does not add to the 
strength in such cases, except when the wood finally becomes 
considerably dryer than it was at the time of nailing. Toe- 
nailing draws two pieces tightly together, as shown (at the 
right), and in blind floor nailing (421, or sheathing, 525). 
Sometimes the effect can be increased after the nail has been 
driven part way by drawing the hammer in the direction of 
the point of the nail so as to bend the upper part of the nail 
toward the other piece. In boarding a building, and in similar 
cases, drive the first nails in each board slanting downward, 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 95 


and near the top edge, to force the board tightly against the 
one below. 





216. Clinching. After driving through the wood, place so 
that the head of the nail rests on a piece of metal. Use light, 
slanting blows to bend the point into a hook. Then bury the 
hooked end in the wood. Useful in rough work, as for cleats 
on a shed door. Clinching nails can be bought. For light 
work, another hammer can be held against the head of the 
nail, after driving the nail through the wood. For heavy 
work use something heavier. It is not a good plan to drive and 
clinch in one operation. Drive the nail through first, then 
clinch. In such work as canoe-building, however, driving and 
clinching are done in one operation over a metal-covered 


borin.” 
ae 


217. To clinch a common wire nail neatly, bend the end 
around a nail set, round spike, or other rod, with the hammer, 


t A rivet, which holds on the clinching principle, is a pin of metal with a 
head, especially useful in boat work. Bore a hole for the rivet, drive it 
through, hold a hammer or solid piece of metal against the head, and pound 
down or “‘upset’’ the other end to form a second head. A washer or 
“‘burr’’ is slipped over the end of the rivet before upsetting it. 


96 Woodworking 


remove nail set or spike, and complete the clinching with the 
hammer. 

218. Drawing anail. Place a block under the head of the 
hammer. Add more blocking, if necessary, as the nail comes 
out. To draw nails from boxes, and in similar cases, if you 
have no nail-puller, pry up a board, together with the nails, a 
short distance—perhaps 14’’—and then with a quick blow of 
the hammer pound the board back into place. striking between 





the nails. This will usually leave the nail-heads projecting a 
little above the surface, ready to be drawn. This lessens the 
splitting of the boards and the bending of the nails caused by 
prying and pounding. If you do not need the entire length of 
the boards, saw around the box near each end. This is less 
likely to split the boards. Old broken nails can sometimes be 
removed by boring around them with a quill-bit. Sometimes 
they can be driven through with less injury to the work than to 
draw them. 


Nail Set 


219. Nail set. Used to sink nails below the surface before — 
puttying, etc. The size should depend on the size of the nail. 
Place the little finger on the wood and also press it firmly 
against the nail set to keep it from slipping off the head of the 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 97 


nail. A conical depression in the point of the set helps. On 
rough, heavy work the head of a large nail or spike can be used 
if necessary. 





Summary. Hold hammer near end of handle, usually. 
Try to strike head of nail squarely. Bore hole slightly smaller 
than the nail for nice work, particularly with slender nails in 
hard wood. Stand in line with edge of piece into which nail is 
to be driven. Start nails in outer piece before placing in posi- 
tion, when practicable, for nice work. Draw nails which bend 
or slant when driving, and drive others. Nails hold better in 
side-grain than in end-grain. Drive cut nails with points 
across the grain. Stagger nails when practicable. Blind- 
nailing leaves no holes and draws the parts together. Toe- 
nailing draws parts together. When clinching drive through, 
then clinch with light, slanting blows. Use blocking under 
hammer head when drawing nails. When setting nails keep 
little finger on the wood against nail set. 


Mallet 


220. Mallet. Used for striking wooden tool handles, etc. 
(348, 469). ‘‘ Wood to wood, metal to metal,” is the rule when 
much heavy work like mortising (467, etc.) is done with mallet 
and chisel. Heavy mallets should have the handle put through 
a tapering eye in the head (469). Rubber mallets are some- 
times used in assembling work. A rounded head with the 


98 Woodworking 


handle on the end (348) saves effort, as there is no flat side to 
keep adjusted to the tool handle. You do not gain force by 
using the mallet instead of the hammer, but the softer and 
more yielding blow saves the tool handle. Hickory, lignum 
vitze, maple, or other dense hard wood, is suitable for a mallet. 
See Chisel (83) 


Screwdriver, Screws, etc. 


221. Screwdriver. ‘This should end in a long bevel or it 
will slip out of the slot in the head of the screw.* A long 
screwdriver is better than a short one, usually. 

Za 





222. A screwdriver bit, to use with the bit-brace (161), 
often saves time and strength. Turn the brace part way, 





stop, then turn again, and so on; or use the ratchet-brace with 
only partial revolutions. 





223. The spiral screwdriver saves time and strength. It 
drives or withdraws screws either by pushing on the handle 
or by a ratchet movement. Can also be made rigid, like a 
common screwdriver. A countersink can be used in place 


t A short bevel is also bad when extracting screws, because it necessi- 
tates pressing hard against the screw to keep the screw-driver in the slot. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 99 


of the screwdriver. The ratchet screwdriver also saves time 
and strength. You merely turn the handle forward and back- 
ward, without having to take a new grip at each turn. 


SK 


224. Screws. To fasten with screws. Bore a hole in the 
outer piece—the one which will come against the head of the 
screw—large enough to let the smooth part of the screw slip 
through easily without being loose (182). Then, when the 
screw is driven into the inner piece, the head will draw the 
two parts together tightly. In soft wood the hole in the outer 
piece is the only one needed, unless there be danger of splitting 
the inner piece. In hard wood bore a hole in the inner piece 
somewhat smaller than the diameter of the screw,—sometimes 
even as large as the core or solid shank if the threads were 
stripped off. For nice work, if several screws are to be in line, 
make a light pencil mark on which to bore. Staggering is 
often best (213, 366, 367). When fastening hard wood and 
soft wood together, drive from the soft wood to the hard, when 
possible, so that the thread of the screw is in the hard wood 
and the head bears against the soft. Slender screws (particu- 
larly brass ones) are likely to twist off in hard wood, unless the 
holes are the right size. Countersink for the heads, except for 
rough work in soft wood and for round-headed screws. Stop 
turning a screw in soft wood when it is driven home, or you 
may strip the threads which the screw has made in the wood. 
These threads in the wood are what make the screw hold. 
If they are stripped, the screw has less holding power than a 
nail. Driving a screw with the hammer prevents the screw 
cutting the thread in the wood, but there is no harm for com- 
mon work in starting a screw with a light tap of the hammer. 
Screws do not hold strongly in end-wood, because the thread 
in the end-grain is easily stripped. Putting glue in the‘ hole 
may help sometimes. Screws hold more strongly than nails 


100 Woodworking 


(except in end-grain, where nails are often better) and the 
work can be taken apart more easily or tightened; but they 
cost more, take more time, and sometimes they injure the 
appearance of the work. To make a screw drive easily, rub 
the point on paraffine or wax. Soap will do, but may cause 
rusting. To replace a screw in a worn hole, or if a hole is in the 
wrong place, if not to be exposed to the weather first plug the 
hole with a peg tightly fitted and driven with glue. If exposed 
to the weather, try waterproof glue. Winding wire around the 
thread is sometimes done as a makeshift. When one-half of 
the head of a screw breaks off in driving, the screw can often 
be drawn out by gripping the remaining half-head in the claw 
of a hammer, and turning the hammer around to the left. 





225. Inserting a dowel, or other piece of hard wood, across 
the grain, to give a stronger hold when a screw has to be driven 
into end-grain. Use care not to split the dowel. 





226. ‘Screw holes.’? When screws have to be removed 
and redriven frequently in the same place, ‘‘screw holes’”’ 
can be used to advantage. 





Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 1o1 


227. Screws are of various kinds.' 

Summary. End of screwdriver should have long bevel. 
Screwdriver bit good for common work. Spiral or ratchet 
screwdriver very convenient. To fasten two pieces, bore hole 
in outer piece so that screw will just slip through. Small hole 
in inner piece, if hard wood. Staggering often desirable. 
screw soft wood to hard, rather than the reverse, when prac- 
ticable. Countersink for heads of screws, except for rough 
work in soft wood and for round-headed screws. Over- 
driving screws, or pounding them in with a hammer, strips 
the thread cut in the wood. Screws do not hold strongly in 
end-wood. With slender screws in hard wood, size of hole in 
inner piece must be carefully adjusted to size of screw. Touch 
points to paraffine, wax, or soap. Plug a worn hole (or one 
in the wrong place) with wood. For greater strength, use 
bolts or rivets. 


1 The size is indicated by the length in inches or fractions of an inch, and 
by the size of the wire from which the screw is made, as a 114”’ screw No. 9, 
meaning one and one-half inches long and made from No. 9 wire. Wood 
screws are made from 4” to o” in length and of wire from I to 30. Some 
screws for rough work are made to be driven with the hammer, the screw 
driver being used only to finish the driving. 

Lag-screws, screwed in with a wrench, are useful for frame-work, as a 
bench, and for fastening metal to wood. A washer should be used some- 
times next the head if against wood. Bolts hold much more strongly than 
screws, and should be used when strength is the main object, as in a gate, 
bob-sled, heavy horses, some kinds of boat and wagon work, etc. A bolt 
should fit the hole snugly. A washer should be used under the nut when it 
comes against the wood, and sometimes under the head. Bolts in outdoor 
work should not be screwed up so tightly as to make depressions in which 
water may settle and cause decay. The length of a bolt is measured 
from the point to the underside of the head, therefore in selecting 
you must allow for the thickness of the nut, and for washers if 
the latter are used. Common kinds of bolts are carriage, stove, and 
machine. To prevent a nut unscrewing, use a lock-nut, or deform the 
thread if the nut will not be removed. Rivets are also used for some 
kinds of work. To fasten wood to masonry, an expansive bolt can be 
used. 


102 Woodworking 


Clamps, Handscrews, etc. 




































































228. Clamps. Cabinet-clamps are important for gluing 
flat pieces together and in assembling large work like furniture. 
229. Type of clamp for heavy work. If mounted on horses, 
or on permanent supports, two or more of such clamps are 
















































































invaluable for quick and accurate clamping of large work 
like doors, table tops, etc. To make a long clamp, in an 
emergency, bolt together the bars of two clamps so that there 
will be a screw at each end. 











230. Convenient forms of clamps for general use. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 103 


231. Clamping a glued joint. The flat sides or the edges 
of the clamps should touch the surface of the work, to keep 
the pieces flat when the screws are tightened. Clamps are 





also made with two bars, one to bear on each side of the wood. 
Screw each clamp in turn a little at a time, so that the joint 
may be brought together evenly.* Two persons can use 
cabinet clamps to the best advantage. See 146. 





232. Put pieces of waste wood between the clamps and 
the work. 


tUnless the pieces are firmly clamped throughout, their shape may 
change before the glue becomes set. Clamping at only one or two points 
may force the joint to open elsewhere. First make the best joint you can. 
Then, after gluing, hold the pieces together with a good number of clamps, 
firmly and evenly tightened. The old-fashioned way of rubbing the two 
edges together and then leaving the rest to the glue is not so good for the 
beginner as to use clamps, except with small pieces, such as corner-blocks 


(450). 


104 Woodworking 


233. In assembling work, as the clamps are tightened and 
the joints brought to a bearing, test to see that everything is 
coming square and true. Test by eye, with square, etc., 
because the pressure of the clamps, unless they are in exactly 
the right position, often forces the work out of shape, even 
though the parts may have fitted properly before applying 
pressure. By loosening a clamp a little and moving one end 
upward or downward, or to the right or left, and then tighten- 
ing, the work can be made true and square. Move one end 
of a clamp and then test, and you will soon see how easily 
the angles of the work can be altered until correct. Merely 
moving the blocking, or inserting a slip of wood, is often 
sufficient to change the angle. Sometimes a slight blow at 
one corner will make the work square. A clamp placed diag- 
onally can be used if necessary (308). 





234. Moving one end, or both ends, of each clamp to the 
right or left to make the angles correct. 





235. Moving end of clamp up or down to make the sur- 
face flat. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 105 


236. Simple devices for clamping, tightened with double 
wedge (247). Insert waste wood (B) if clamp is too long. 


Ae 


The first form shown can be made double by putting blocks 
on the under side also. The second form has two strips with 
corresponding holes in each and pins to fit them. It has the 
advantage of preventing the pieces from springing up when 
the wedges are driven. 








237. A doubled rope (“ twister ’’), with stick inserted and 
twisted, is very effective in some cases. Sometimes force can 
be applied by springing a board. For small work a press can 
easily be made, obtaining the pressure with a screw or by a 
weighted lever. Pressure by a toggle-joint is very powerful. 
See 422, 423. 

238. For columns built up of staves there are special col- 
umn clamps. In such cases a ‘‘twister’’ (2377) can sometimes 
be used. A chain, wire, or strong rope can be loosely wound 


106 Woodworking 


around the column, and wedges driven between the column 
and the wire, rope, or chain, which will force the parts together 


yy Uf 


tightly. Draw-dogs (202, footnote) can be driven into the 
ends, or corrugated fasteners (202) for small work. See 545. 


239. When gluing pieces of such a shape that the clamps 
will not hold readily, as in the example shown, leave pro- 
jections or lugs at the ends to receive the clamps, and trim 


them off after the glue is hard; or better still, glue the pieces 
together before cutting the shape. 





240. Suggestive of uses to which cabinet clamps may be 
put. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 107 


241. Handscrew. A kind of portable vise, often used for 
pressing glued work, and for holding parts of work in place. 
| NANNNNAN | . 


beteds re ay 
IY aa NT 
Ay) / 
} 


242. Opening or closing a handscrew. First see whether 
the jaws are parallel. If not, turn one of the screws until the 
jaws are parallel. Then hold at arm’s length, with a handle 
in each hand, as shown, and revolve. Revolving one way 
opens the jaws, the opposite way closes them. 















NWA) 












243. Adjusting handscrew to the work. Fit the handscrew 
so that the tip ends of the jaws do not quite touch the wood, 
as Shown. Then give the final tightening with the outer screw 
only, until the jaws bear on the wood evenly. For nice 
work use blocking of waste wood, as shown, to prevent 
bruising the work. Keep the jaws clean. Rub the threads 
of the screws with black lead, soap, bayberry tallow, or 
wax. 

244. Suggestive of various uses of hand-screws for clamp- 
ing in different directions at the same time. Chalk rubbed on 


108 Woodworking 





the jaws makes them less likely to slip when pressure is 
applied by a second hand-screw. ; 





246. Useful for irregular work. Jorgensen clamp. 


ie < 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 109 


Summary. Tighten clamps, etc., carefully to give uniform 
pressure. Use blocking to save defacing the work. For edge- 
joints have bars of clamps bear on the surfaces to keep them 
flat. In assembling, move ends of clamps to the right or left, 
or up or down, if necessary, to make the work square and true. 
Keep testing by eye, with square, by diagonal measurements, 
etc. Work quickly. Where a number of parts are to be glued 
at once, rehearse the clamping process before applying glue. 
Substitutes for clamps easily contrived. Make jaws of hand- 
screws parallel, then adjust, and finally tighten with outer 
screw. 


247. Wedges. Tosplit, use one wedge (75, 578). To press, 
hold, or move, use a double wedge; that is, two wedges point- 
ing in opposite directions, so that the pressure will be uniform, 
whether one or both wedges be driven. Short, flaring wedges 
do the work quickly but require hard blows and are liable to 
slip. Long tapering ones work more slowly, more easily, and 
are less liable to slip. A single wedge may damage work 
where a double one will not. 


SHARPENING © 


248. Usually two operations: first, Grinding, to make the 
bevel* for the edge; and second, Wheiting, to make the edge 
sharp for cutting. While learning, examine the edge with a 
magnifying glass, now and then. 

249. Grinding. Grinding wheels of artificial quick-cutting 
abrasives are in common use. They cut much faster than the 
old-fashioned grindstone, though it is doubtful whether the 


t This bevel is the basil of the tool. 


110 Woodworking 


result is better. The tool is held steadily by adjustable guides, 
and the small size of the grinding wheel gives a concave or 
‘‘hollow-ground”’ basil. This makes a thin and keen cutting 


CONCAVE OR 
"HOLLOW ~-GROUND” 
e BASIL. 


edge, which lasts longer without re-grinding than if the basil 
were flat (253, footnote). Power-driven oilstone grinders are 
in common use, and are desirable. For heavy mortising, or 
rough work in hard wood, a flat basil is better, because 
stronger. 

250. To grind a plane-iron, chisel, spokeshave, etc., with 
a grinding wheel. If a plane-iron, remove the cap-iron (133, 
footnote). Have the wheel turn toward you. If the edge of 








the tool is not square, first make it so by grinding the extreme 
edge, testing with square. Then set the adjustable guide to 
grind the basil at the angle it had at first, as nearly as you 
can.* Then grind the basil. Keep the tool moving sideways, 


t Guides for grinding and whetting (252) plane-irons and chisels can be 
obtained. 

Although the angles should be varied slightly according to the hardness of 
the wood and the kind of work, where there are only a few tools to be used 
for all purposes, it is not practicable to vary the angles much unless there is 
considerable work of the same kind to be done. Experience will teach the 
best angles for different kinds of work. An edge suitable for delicate work 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 111 


all the time, for if you grind long at one point the temper of 
the edge will be injured. The tool can be dipped in water. 
Grind until the basil is formed evenly to the edge. It will 
then be properly shaped but will not be sharp. Most common 
cutting tools are ground in this way. To hold the iron of a 
spokeshave, insert it in a narrow slot cut in the end of a piece 
of wood. 

251. To grind with a grindstone. The principle is the same 
as just shown. Have stone turn toward you. Keep it wet, or 
the temper of the tool will be injured and the stone glazed. 





Hold tool so as to grind at the original bevel, as nearly as you 
can (about 25°,—usually from 20° for light paring tools to 
30° for heavy mortising tools to be used in hard wood.) Keep 
the arms near the body. Hold the tool firmly and move it 
slowly sideways, back and forth, across the stone, with the 
fingers, or the palm, of the left hand on top of the tool. Test 
squareness of the edge with square. A rest for the tool, easily 
contrived, helps to keep it at the same angle. Grind until 
the basil is formed evenly to the edge. 

252. Whetting. After grinding, rub on an oilstone. Arti- 
ficial stones of carborundum or other manufactured abrasive 
are in common use, because they cut faster than natural 
stones, though it is doubtful whether they give a better edge. 


in white pine would be ruined quickly if used upon lignum-vitz. The fib- 
rous structure of soft wood, being more yielding than that of hard wood, 
offers less resistance to the tool, and therefore requires a keener edge to cut 
it cleanly without tearing or crushing the wood. The firmer structure of 
hard wood can be cut by an edge which would merely tear the soft wood. 


112 Woodworking 


For tools requiring an extremely fine edge the natural Arkansas 
stone is unsurpassed, while for common tools the Washita is 
still desirable for giving a very durable edge. An artificial 
oilstone with one side coarse and the other fine is excellent. 
Use oil with artificial stones and also with fine and medium- 
grained natural stones, to prevent the pores being filled. Use 
water with coarse natural stones. A worn stone can be trued 
by rubbing on sand paper, with water, or on wet sand on a 
board. 





253. To whet. Pour a little light lubricating oil on the 
stone.* Lay the basil of the tool on the stone as you had it 
when grinding. Raise the rear end of the tool very slightly 
until you can see the oil press up a little in front of the edge. 

Then rub the edge backward and forward at the same slant 
until you have ground a little basil.? The tool can be turned 


t Do not use linseed, or any thick gummy oil, as it will gum the stone. 
2 Flat basil made by grindstone is shown by a. Position for rubbing 
on oilstone by 6. With a small grinding wheel, the ground basil will be 





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B Kite 
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LALA fi Y V4, 4 CS Y?, Z, phifsifefify 
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S, ft f 7, ‘f, ‘4, % fy 4 Gi2 
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concave, as already shown (249), so that the tool must be raised but very 
slightly for whetting. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 113 


obliquely and rubbed back and forth. Round the corners a 
very little. After whetting there will be a ‘‘wire-edge”’ turned 
over on the flat side. You can feel it. 


254. Removing wire-edge. Lay the flat side of the tool 
on the stone and draw it toward you, or sideways, once or 
twice. Keep it flat on the stone, for the slightest basil on the 
flat side will spoil the edge. Repeat the whetting and the 
removal of wire-edge, until no roughness can be felt. Draw- 
ing the edge lengthways across a piece of soft wood will often 
remove a very slight wire-edge. Keep the stone clean. 





255. Testing sharpness. Pass the thumb lightly along the 
edge. You can feel the slightest roughness. Also test by cut- 
ting across a piece of soft wood. Hold the edge toward the 
light. A sharp edge is invisible to the naked eye; therefore, if 
you can see a bright line at the edge, continue sharpening 
until it disappears. 

256. Stropping. Drawing tool over a leather strop for a 
very fine edge. Draw the tool backward over strop. Raise, 


114 Woodworking 


and repeat the motion. Stropping is necessary only for fine 
work, carving, etc. A paste of lard or sweet oil and crocus 





powder or emery is spread thinly over the strop. Strops 
treated with fine artificial abrasives can be bought. 

257. Re-sharpening. You do not need to re-grind the 
edge when it becomes only slightly dull. Whet it on the oil- 
stone. After doing this several times, you will have to grind 
again. 





258. Knife. In grinding, tilt the blade very slightly so 
that the cutting basil lies flat on the stone. Grind equally on 
both sides. To whet, hold the blade obliquely on the stone, 
tilt it slightly so that the basil rests on the stone, and rub it 
back and forth. Do the same on the other side, and so on. 
Finish with a fine stone, and with strop for a very keen edge. 
Some use a circular motion near the point, and let the straight 
part bear a little harder on the edge of the stone than else- 
where, as it is pushed back and forth. 

259. Gouge. Turn or roll the tool continually while 
grinding.* 

« “Hold the length of the gouge, not parallel with the face of the wheel 
but at right angles so that the bevel is ground sidewise and rock the entire 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 115 





260. Rub on oilstone like plane-iron or chisel, but roll con- 
tinually. Can be held at right angles with the stone and rolled. 


SLIP STONE 





261. Whetting edge of outside gouge with slip-stone held 
in the hand, using oil. The inside gouge is best ground on a 
tapering, conical-shaped, artificial stone. 





surface of the bevel back and forth on the face of the wheel. A shows the 
result of good, accurate sharpening, while B indicates the irregular bevel- 


ASS 8 


angle caused by attempting to sharpen a gouge without enough of the 
rocking movement.”—Pike Manufacturing Co. 


116 Woodworking 


262. Whetting basil of ‘‘ inside ’’ gouge with “ slip.”? The 
curvature of the slip should be a little ‘‘quicker”’ (sharper) 
than that of the gouge. Rest the tool on the edge of the bench 





and move the stone, not the tool. Carving gouges are usually 
held in the hand for rubbing. Remove wire-edge from outside 
gouge in the same way, but keep the slip flat against the inside 
of the gouge, to prevent making an inside basil, which would 
spoil the edge. 





KEEP HANOLE 
STEADY W/TH 
LEFT HAND 


263. Drawknife. Grind like the plane or chisel. To whet, 
hold on the bench, basil side up, as shown, and whet the edge 
with the oilstone, rubbing lengthways of the stone. 

264. Bits. File the scoring nibs (162) of the auger bit 
from the inside only, or they will score a circle too small for 
the rest of the bit. There are special files for auger bits. A 
slip-stone can also be used. File the cutting-lips (162) from 
the under side. Hold bit, with point up, against edge of bench 
when filing, as shown in 262. 

Twist-drills are ground on the ends, at the same angle as at 
first. Do this on the side of the tool grinder. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 117 


265. Cabinet scraper. Drawfiling edge. Fasten in vise, 
one long edge upward. Hold file (for metal) as shown, and 





move it lengthways of the edge a few times. Do this with 
the opposite edge also. The edges can be ground on a grinding 
wheel. The edges and sides can then be rubbed lightly on an 
oilstone to remove any burr or roughness, as shown at the 
right. 





266. Rubbing with burnisher. Next, lay flat at edge of 
bench. Take burnisher,’ place it flat on the scraper, and rub 
each edge lightly back and forth a few times to make the edge 
keen for turning. 

267. Turning the edge. Rub the burnisher with a firm, 
light, even stroke once or twice, lengthways of the edge, at 
the same time giving a lengthways motion, from tip to handle. 


t The burnisher is a piece of hard, smooth steel of triangular or curved 
section and rounded edges. One can be made easily by grinding an old 
triangular file until smooth. The edge of the blade of a chisel or the back 
of a gouge can be used if necessary, but a burnisher is better. 


118 Woodworking 


The movement is similar to that in making a shearing cut 
with an edged-tool (77). This helps turn the edge. Treat the 





BEGIN IN THIS POSITION END IN THIS POSITION 


four long edges in this way. When all four edges are dull they 
can be re-sharpened once or twice with the burnisher. Then 
they will need drawfiling again. Some grind the edges at a 
bevel, using one angle instead of two, but this is of doubtful 
advantage. 

268. Brad-awl. Sharpen with file (for metal), or slip-stone. 

269. Trimmer. A keen edge is necessary. The knife must 
be sharpened entirely on the bevelled side. To remove any 
wire-edge, use only the merest touch of a fine oilstone on the 
flat side, giving a final touch of the stone on the side of the 
basil. 

Summary. Two main operations—grinding and whetting. 
An artificial grinding wheel saves time, compared with a 
grindstone. Use water with the latter. Have the wheel turn 
toward you. Hollow-ground basil preferable, except for rough 
work in hard wood or heavy mortising, etc. With plane, 
chisel, etc., first grind edge square, then grind the basil. Avoid 
injuring the temper of the tool. Basil of medium length for 
general work, long for fine work in soft wood, short for rough 
hard work. Whet to make a second small basil at edge. When 
removing wire-edge, keep flat side of tool flat on the stone. 
Use lubricating oil with an artificial whetstone (water with 
a coarse natural stone only). Test sharpness with thumb, and 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 119 


by cutting soft wood. A keen edge is invisible to the naked 
eye. For very fine edge use strop. Roll outside gouge when 
sharpening. Whet gouges, etc., with slip stone. File auger 
bits on the inside and under side. Grind a twist drill on the 
end. Drawfile scraper, and turn edge with burnisher. 


SAW-FILING 


270. Saw-filing. A trade in itself. Many good workmen 
turn over the care of saws to professional experts. There is 
usually at least one saw-filer in nearly every community." 

Summary. Top-jointing, setting, filing, side jointing. ’ 





* The teeth are first “‘jointed,” or reduced to the same level, by lightly 
passing the flat side of a file over their points, lengthways of the saw. The 
saw is firmly fastened in a saw-clamp, close to the teeth, so that it will not 
shake or rattle, preferably at a north window, on account of the light. 
The teeth are set by bending them outward, one tooth toward one side and 
the next toward theotherside. Do this witha ‘‘saw-set.’”’ A tooth should 
not be bent for more than half its length. For a cross-cutting saw the file 
(a triangular saw-file) is held at an angle with the blade to fit the original 
shape of the teeth. 

Hold the handle of the file in the right hand and the point between the 
thumb and forefinger of the left hand as shown. Push the file across with 
an even, straight stroke, without any rocking motion. Press only on the 
forward stroke and lift the tool on the back stroke. File from the handle 
toward the point (some begin at the tip), filing only the teeth which bend 
away (2. e., every alternate tooth), and carefully keeping the file at the 
proper angle. Press only on the tooth being filed, but keep the file lightly 
touching the adjacent tooth, and make allowance for the fact that when the 

alternate set is filed the file will take off a little from the first set of teeth. 


120 Woodworking 


Thus care must be taken not to file too much. Then turn the saw around 
and file the other teeth. On looking lengthways along the edge of a cross- 
cutting or panel saw that has been properly set and filed, an angular groove 
will be seen along the whole length, in which a needle will slide from one end 
of the saw to the other. After setting and filing, lay the saw on a straight 
board and joint the sides of the points of the teeth by running a smooth 
file or oilstone along the sides of the teeth. Thus the width will be more 
uniform and the cutting cleaner. 

The ripping-saw is usually filed square across at right angles to the blade. 
A soft saw with large, well-shaped teeth is best for practising filing, and the 
beginner can try first on a piece of soft sheet metal. 





HANS SAW TEETH 


(“Angles. The ‘face’ of each cross-cut tooth is slightly steeper than the 
back, making an angle with the line of the teeth of about 66°. The com- 
pass teeth lean still further with an angle of 75°. The rip saw ‘face’ is at 
right angles (90°) to the line of the teeth. Its cutting edge is at right angles 
to the side of the blade. The angle of each tooth covers 60°.”’ Simonds 
Manufacturing Co.) 


Ane 


VISE 





If you cannot hold the file steadily, use a jointer, which can be bought, 
or make one, as shown. If you have no saw-clamp, use two hardwood 
strips and fasten in vise. The teeth of the compass saw are a compromise 
between cross-cut and ripping teeth. The turning saw usually has ripping 
teeth. As little set as will allow the saw to slide freely through the wood 
is best. Guides for saw filing can be bought. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 121 


QUESTIONS 


EpGED Toots. 1. Show the difference between the action of edged-tools 
when splitting and when paring. 

2. Whatts a shearing cut? Why often more effective than a straight cut? 

KNIFE. 3. From what direction should the light come when whittling? 

4. What causes the most trouble in doing accurate whittling? 

5. When whittling a wide surface to make it thinner, where would you cut 
first? 

6. What 1s usually the best position for the arm which holds the work? 

7. Show how to make a shearing cut. 

HATCHET. 8. Show the action of the hatchet or axe when splitting wood, 
and when paring or trimming. 

CHISEL. 9. Show how to control the chisel for paring, trimming, and 
shaping. 

10. How can you tell in which direction to cut? 

11. When should a chisel have a long basil?—a short basil?—one of medium 
length? 

12. Show how to make shearing cuts—to trim the edge of a dado or groove—. 
to pare across end-grain. 

13. Show how a common chisel acts when held upright and driven into the 
wood. Show how a carving chisel acts when driven in the same way. 

GoucE. 14. When should you use an outside gouge?—an inside gouge? 

15. Show how to control the gouge to make a shearing cut. 

16. What ts usually the best way to cut to remove surplus wood? 

17. What is a ‘‘quick”’ gouge? 

DRAWENIFE. 18. What are the uses of the drawknife? Do you find it a 
hard tool to use? If so, why? 

19. Show how to make a shearing cut. 

20. When should the basil be used against the wood, and when the flat 
side? 

Saw. 21. What are the two common kinds? For what is each used? 

22. What 1s the set, and for what purpose? 

23. Show the shape and action of the teeth of the cross-cut saw. 

24. What familiar tool does each of the teeth resemble in its action? 

25. Show how to place the wood for sawing, the position to take, and how to 
hold the saw. | 

26. Show how to start the cut in the right place, to begin the strokes, and to 
continue the sawing. 

27. Show how to saw with regard to the line and the waste wood. 

28. Show what to do if you are not sawing squarely with the surface—also, 
if the saw runs off the line. 


122 Woodworking 


29. Show the shape and action of the teeth of the rip saw. 

30. What common tool does each of the teeth resemble in its action? 

31. Can you use the cross-cut saw to saw with the grain? Is tt ever desirable 
todo so? Why? Whats the result of using the rip saw across the grain? 

32. Does this saw cut on the forward stroke, the backward stroke, or on both? 

33. At what slant does this saw cut to the best advantage? 

34. If you are ripping a thick piece, show a simple way of cutting to the 
line on both sides. 

35. When the kerf closes and binds the saw, what can you do? 

36. When cutting a piece from the corner of a larger piece, should you first 
saw lengthways or crossways? Why? 

37. If you could have but one saw, which would you choose? 

38. When are a slight set and fine teeth best? When a wider set and coarse 
teeth? 

39. When should you use the back saw? Show how to use it. What kind of 
teeth has it? ; 

40. Should the flat side of a piece or the edge be upward, usually, when using 
the back saw? Why? 

41. When should you use the compass saw?—the keyhole saw? What 
kind of teeth has the compass saw? 

42. When should you use the turning or bow saw? Show how to use tt. 

43. When should you use the hand jig saw, the scroll saw, and the coping 
saw? Show how to use them. 

44. Show how to support the wood in order to saw vertically. 

45. To follow the pattern, when sawing in this way, which do you turn, the 
wood or the saw? Why? 

46. Must the teeth point upward or downward? Why? 

47. How do you saw a hole, or inside openwork, with one of these narrow- 
bladed saws? 

48. How do you cut a very sharp curve or angle with one of these saws? 

MiTRE-Box. 49. When would you use a mitre-box? 

50. Show how to lay out and make a wooden mutre-box. Also, a simpler 
form with one side. 

51. Show how to cut a number of pieces of the same length with the mitre-box. 

PLANE. 52. If you could have but one plane, what kind would you choose? 
When should you use the jack plane?—the joinier?—the fore-plane?—the 
smoothing-plane?—the block-plane? 

53. When should you remove the planer-marks from machine-planed stock? 
When ts it not necessary? 

54. Show the arrangement and adjustments of a plane. Show the purpose of 
the cap-tron. 

55. Show how to adjust for crooked-grained hardwood. 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 123 


56. How should the cutting edge of the jack-plane be ground for general 
work?—for merely roughing off the surface? 

57. Show how to adjust the projection of the cutting edge. 

58. Explain planing with the grain and against it. 

59. Show a simple way to suppor: the end of a long piece. 

60. Planing an edge. What two requirements must be met? What should 
you do first? 

61. Show how to hold the plane. Why musi you keep ti flat on the wood while 
planing? 

62. Show the process of planing an edge. 

63. Why should the plane be kept lengthways of the edge? What advantage 
might there be in turning it partly around? What disadvantage? 

64. Why ts it best to take long strokes? 

65. What ts the reason for having long planes like the jointer? What dis- 
advantage has a long plane? 

66. Show how to test the straightness of your planing—the squareness of 
the edge. 

67. If one side of the edge is higher than the other, what can you do? 

68. What is the general process in planing edges to be glued to make a wide 
surface, as a table-top? 

69. Show how to arrange and mark the pieces. 

70. Show the process of jointing the edges. Why reverse alternate pieces for 
planing? 

71. Instead of using the try-square to test the edges for a glue-joint, how 
should you determine the accuracy of the joint? What else must you test? 

72. Instead of having the edges touch throughout, what is a common practice? 

73. Before beginning to plane the side of a board or a wide surface, what 
should you do? 

74. How should you hold the plane? 

75. Show how to test the flatness of the surface with the plane or other tool. 

76. With a rough surface, or when much wood has to be removed, how may 
you plane at first? 

77. Show how to plane end-grain. Show several ways. What plane is best 
for this? 

78. Is a shearing cut ever advisable with the plane? When? 

79. Show how to plane the edge of a box at the corner, and in similar cases. 

80. Show how to make an octagonal stick by planing. 

81. Show how to make a bead cutter. 

SPOKESHAVE. 82. When would you use the spokeshave? Show how to use 
it. 

83. Why is it not suitable for doing the ordinary work of a plane? 

TRIMMER. 8&4. Show the principle of the trimmer, and how to cut with 4. 


124 Woodworking 


BorinG Toots. 85. What advaniage has the ratchet brace? 

86. What is the function of the worm or point of the auger bit?—of the 
scoring nibs?—of the cutting lips? 

87.’ Why should pressure be unnecessary when boring with the auger-bit? 

88. When would you prefer a single thread screw point, and when a double | 
thread? 

89. How can you tell the size of an auger bit? 

90. Show how to insert the bit in the brace and how to take tt out. 

91. Show how to bore, and how to test the accuracy of the boring. 

92. Show how to withdraw a bit from the hole. 

93. Show how to prevent splintering when boring through a piece. 

94. When boring a deep hole in hard wood 1s difficult, what is 1t well to do? 

95. How can you be sure that the position of a through hole will be exact on 
both sides of the piece? 

96. Show how to bore at a given angle. 

97. When should you use a bit gauge? If you have no bit gauge, what can 
you do? 

98. Shaw how to adjust and use the expansive bit. If the work is too hard 
for thts bit, what can you use? 

99. To cut a hole too large for an expansive bit, or 1f you have no expansive 
bit, what can you do? 

100. What is counterboring? When should you do 1t? 

101. If you have bored a hole with an auger bit, can you continue it with a 
smaller bit? Can you continue it with a larger one? Why? What can you 
do tn the latter case? 

102. What advantage has the twist drill? What disadvantage? 

103. What advantage has the twist bit for wood? What disadvantage? 

104. How can you tell the size of a twist drill? 

105. What advantage and disadvantage has the gimlet bit? 

106. When can you use the Forstner But? 

107. What advantage has the center bit? What disadvantage? 

108. When should you use a countersink?—a countersink gauge? 

109. What are the uses and advantages of the breast and hand drill, the push 
brace, the small hand drill, the reciprocating drill, the automatic push drill? 
110. When would you use a reamer?—a screw and plug lit and plug cutter? 

111. What disadvantage has the gimlet? 

112. What ts the use of the brad awl? Show how to use it. How should the 
size of the awl compare with that of the nail to be driven? 

FILE AND Rasp. 113. When should you use the file? Show how to hold i 
and how to use it. 

114. Why should you press on the forward stroke, but not on the return 
stroke? Why press lightly when using a new file? 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 125 


115. Why should you not use a file for wood on metal? 

116. How do you clean a file for wood? 

117. What shapes are the most generally useful for woodworking? 

118. How does the rasp differ from the file? When should you use the rasp? 

SCRAPER. 119. When should the scraper be used? 

120. Show the principle upon which it works, and how to use it. 

121. Make sketch showing the shape of the cutting edge. 

122. Why spring the scraper at the centre? Why hold it as nearly vertical 
as it will cut well? 

123. Is the name scraper strictly correct? How do you test the surface for 
smoothness? 

SANDPAPER, ETC. 124. What is the function of sandpaper in hand work? 

125. Why defer using sandpaper until you are through using cutting tools? 

126. When should you use a block for sanding? 

127. Show how to sand surfaces and edges with a block—without a block. 

128. How can you sand a small end? —a round or curved surface? 

129. What makes a good block for fine work?—for curved surfaces? Show 
how to tear sandpaper? 

130. For what 1s steel wool useful? 

131. For fine cabinet work why is it well to round the edges just enough to 
remove the sharpness? 

HAMMER AND NAILS. 132. Name two common kinds of claw hammers? 
How do they differ? 

133. Show how to hold the hammer, and how to strike the most effective blow. 

134. What is the secret of good nailing? 

135. How can you avoid denting the wood? 

136. When should you bore a hole for a nail? What should be the size of the 
hole compared with that of the nail? 

137. Show the position to take when nailing a box, and in similar cases. 
Show the process of nailing. 

138. Why is it best to stand in line with the edge being nailed? 

139. If a nail bends, what should you do? 

140. If a nail slants so that tt will come out at the side, what should you do? 

141. If you tap the upper part of a slanting nail until rt 1s in line with the 
direction in which you wish to drive it, what 1s likely to happen? 

142. Why use longer nails for driving into end-grain than into side-grain? 

143. Show how to drive cut nails and why. 

144. Compare the holding power of cement-coated, smooth, and barbed nails. 

145. Show how to drive slender nails into hard wood. 

146. What are the advantages of staggering natls?—of blind nailing? 

147. Show how to do “‘ sliver”’ or secret nailing. 

148. When would you do ‘‘toe-natling’’? 


126 Woodworking 


149. How can you draw two pieces together by nailing? 

150. When should you clinch nails? Show how to do it? Show how to 
clinch a common wire nat neatly. 

151. Explain the terms three-penny, four-penny, etc. 

152. What kind of nails should you use if they are to be set? 

153. What kind for natling a board fence? 

154. What kind for boat building or exposure to the water? 

155. For what are corrugated fasteners useful? 

156. When should you use rivets? How do you drive them? When should 
you use draw-dogs? 

157. Show how to draw a nail—how to prevent tts bending. Show how to 
draw nails from boxes, and in similar cases. 

NAIL SET. 158. When should you use the natl set? Show how to use tt, and 
how to keep it from slipping off the head of the nail? 

159. How can you set nails in rough work, if necessary? 

MatietT. 160. When should you use the mallet? How are the handles of 
heavy mallets fitied? 

161. What shape of head 1s usually the most convenient? 

SCREWDRIVER AND SCREWS. 162. What 1s the correct shape for the end of a 
screwdriver? Why? 

163. When is a screwdriver bit desirable? How can you prevent its slipping 
out of the slot in the head of the screw? 

164. What advantages have the ratchet and the spiral screwdrivers? 

165. How does a screw fasten two pieces together? 

166. What should be the size of the hole in the outer piece—the one next the 
head of the screw—compared with the size of the screw? 

167. With soft wood, when may a hole be needed in the inner piece also? 

168. With hard wood, how large should the hole in the inner piece be com- 
pared with the size of the screw? 

169. When is it unnecessary, usually, to countersink the heads? 

170. What are the advantages of staggering screws? 

171. Why should you stop turning a screw in soft wood when the head is 
driven to a bearing? 

172. Why 1s tt a bad plan to drive screws with a hammer? 

173. Why do not screws hold strongly in end-grain? 

174. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of nails and screws. 

175. If driving a screw in hard wood 1s difficult, what can you do? 

176. How can you increase the holding power of a screw in end wood? 

177. When screws must be replaced in a worn hole, what can you do? 

178. Is it stronger to screw through soft wood into hard wood, or vice 
versa? 

179. How can you tell the sizes of screws? 


Tools for Cutting, Shaping, Fitting, etc. 127 


180. When should you use lag screws? When should washers be used with 
them? 

181. When you wish more strength than can be given with screws, what can 
you use? When should you use washers? 

182. What objection, in outdoor work, 1s there to screwing bolts so tightly 
as to make depressions in the wood? 

183. Name some kinds of screws in common use. 

184. When should you use an expansive bolt? 

CLAMPS, HANDSCREWS, ETC. 185. When should you use cabinet clamps? 
Show how to use them for a glued joint. 

186. Show how to readjust clamps to correct errors in assembling. 

187. Show some common substitutes for the regular clamps. 

188. When should you use handscrews? Show how to adjust them. 

189. When should you use carriage clamps or other metal clamps? 

190. Explain the use of the wedge, and when to use a double wedge. 

Jics. 191. What are jigs? When ts it worth while to make them? 

SHARPENING. 192. What are the two chief operations in sharpening edged 
tools? 

193. Compare the grindstone and the modern grinding wheel. 

194. What ts a hollow-ground basil? What are its advantages? When is it 
not desirable? 

195. Show the process of grinding a chisel, plane-iron, spokeshave, etc., on a 
modern grinding wheel—on a grindstone. 

196. How can you prevent injuring the temper of the tool? 

197. How can you determine the proper angle at which to grind the tool? 

198. How can you determine when you have ground enough? 

199. Compare the old-fashioned oilstone made of natural stone with that 
made of modern abrasives. 

200. Show how to whet a chisel, plane-iron, spokeshave, etc., on an oilstone. 

201. How can you remove the wire edge? What is essential to bear in mind 
when removing 1t? 

202. How can you know when to stop whetting? 

203. How can you test the keenness of the edge? Which requires a keener 
edge, soft or hard wood? 

204. Describe a strop. When should you use it? Show how to use it. 

205. When the edge of a tool becomes slightly dull what should you do? 

206. How do you know when to re-grind the basil? 

207. Show how to sharpen a knife. 

208. Show how to sharpen a common (outside) gouge. What ts important 
in case of the gouge? 

209. Show the use of the slip stone, and how to sharpen the inside gouge. 

210. How should the curve of the slip stone compare with that of the gouge? 


128 


211. 
212. 


only? 


si: 
214. 
215. 


Woodworking 


Show how to whet the drawknife. 
Why must the scoring nibs of the auger bit be sharpened from the inside 


Show the process of sharpening the scraper. 
Show the process of saw-filing, for both cross-cut and rip saws. 
What are the four main operations in sharpening a saw? 


SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 


The most important thing for the beginner is to have sharp 
tools of the best quality, and clear, thoroughly-seasoned wood of 
a kind suitable for the work. 


THE PROCESS 


271. How to go to work. What do you wish to make,—a 
sled, bookcase, doll’s bed, step-ladder, poultry-house, boat? 
Do you know how to make it? What is the first thing to do? 
What comes next? What is the general process? 

A Working-drawing or Plan. ‘This is the starting point, asa 
rule. It shows the shape and dimensions of the whole object, 
and of each part, and how the parts are put together. A blue- 
print is often used. 

Bill of Materials. Often attached to published drawings. 
From the working-drawings make a list of the number of pieces 
of each kind and their dimensions, including items of hardware 
and other materials. From these data the cost can be 
estimated. 

Selecting the Stock. For all nice work use clear, well- 
seasoned stock of a suitable kind. 

Laying out the Work. Mark the shape of each part accu- 
rately on the wood, ready to be cut. Sometimes all of this can 
be done at first, but in many cases a good deal of the laying 
out is done as the work goes on. 

Getting out the parts. With saws or other tools cut them as 
marked. For nice work they are usually got out a little too 
large, to allow for dressing and smoothing to the exact size. 

Dressing and fitting the parts. With planes or other tools 

129 


130 Woodworking 


fit the pieces to the exact dimensions given on the working- 
drawing, and smooth them. Also, lay out and cut any special 
joints, openings, etc. Test all parts and see that they fit 
together accurately. 

Assembling. Put the parts together permanently with 
nails, screws, glue, or in whatever way may be required. 

Finishing. Repair any defects on the surface and see that 
it is clean. Then give the necessary coats of stain, filler, 
shellac, varnish, wax, paint, or other finishing materials. 
Frequently some or all of the parts can be finished better 
before permanently assembling, but this depends upon the 
construction of the object. 

With machinery the general process is the same, but much 
time and labour are saved. In most cases, the parts can be 
got out, planed, fitted, and smoothed by machine. Much of 
the laying out is done by the adjustments of the machines. 
Finishing is also done by spraying machines and rubbing 
machines, as well as by dipping. 


<— .24" 
mo 


FRONT VIEW END VIEW 


<—/6"—> 


LL 


PICTURE — pBf 
(PERSPECTIVE VIEW) : 
< SIDES AND ENDS 
| ‘ASSEMBLED 


TOP ViEW 


272. Itlustration of Process. Making a common box. Sup- 
pose you wish it to be twenty-four inches long, twelve inches 
high, and sixteen inches wide. Take the exact dimensions 
as marked on the working-drawing (273), and make a Bill of 
Materials or Stock Bill (278). If it is to be a good box, 
select clear, well-seasoned stock, straight and not curled or 
twisted (730, etc.). 

To make by hand only. Select the better edge of the board 
you are to use, mark the lengths of the pieces, using square 


Some Fundamental Principles 131 


(22, etc.), and allowing a little extra length for each piece. 
Dress the pieces for the sides and ends to the finished dimen- 
sions, using square, plane (132, etc.), saw (99, etc.). After 
the pieces are of the right dimensions, and square and smooth, 
nail sides to ends (202, etc.), as shown above, and set the 
nails (219). Next, dress bottom piece almost to finished 
dimensions, leaving it a trifle large to allow for trimming 
after being nailed in place. Nail bottom to sides and ends, 
adjusting the sides and ends to fit the bottom, and testing 
with square. As the angles of the bottom are square, this 
will make the angles of the box square. Dress, fit, and nail 
top in the same way. Gauge line AB around box where it is 
to open (28, etc.). Saw in two by this line. Smooth these 
sawed edges. Fit hinges (442), and lock (562). Remove hinges 
and lock, see that the whole surface of box is smooth, and 
repair any defects (394). Finally finish (3094, etc.), and 
permanently replace hinges and lock. 

To make with machinery. Cut the pieces a little too long 
with the swing-saw (626), or on the circular saw bench (585, 
etc.). Joint (plane) one edge of each piece with jointer (654). 
Saw to width (allowing a trifle) with circular saw. Joint the 
edge just sawed. Cut one end of each piece square on circular 
saw bench, then the other end at the required distance. [Make 
one broad surface of each piece flat or true on the jointer. 
Then run through surfacer (646) to plane the other side, or 
over jointer. Sand each piece with sander (664). Assemble 
by hand. The outside can be sanded after assembling. Saw 
box in two with circular saw. Joint the sawed edges if neces- 
sary. Fit hinges and lock. Remove hinges and lock, and finish 
by spraying with spraying machine; or finish by hand. 

Common sense must be used. Some things are so simple 
that you can carry the whole plan in your mind without 
any drawing at all, and when you copy an object you may 
need no plan. Also, with such work as a chicken-coop, some 
of the processes given above may be omitted; but, as a rule, 


132 Woodworking 


for all good and important work, from a footstool to a sail- 
boat or a house, there is nothing gained by skipping any of 
the operations practiced by skilled workmen. You will soon 
find however that these operations sometimes overlap or come 
in slightly different order. You may have to do some sawing, 
planing, etc., before you can do all the laying out, some 
assembling before all the parts are fitted, some finishing before 
assembling. Summary. With a working-drawing as a guide, 
select the stock, lay out the work, get out the parts, fit and 
smooth them, assemble, and finish. 

273. A Working-drawing, unlike a picture, gives the exact 
shape and size of an object, and of each part of it, and shows 
how the parts are put together. It is drawn to scale, that is, 
either the full size of the object or in the same proportion. 
In plans for a house, for example, 4%’’ or 44’ may represent 
1’ of the actual house.! The symbol ’’ means inches and ’ means 
feet. | 

If you can make working-drawings, you can carry out your 
own ideas satisfactorily. The appearance of the object, its 
strength, the proper materials, how they are to be put to- 
gether, and all matters relating to the construction, have to be 
considered in making a working-drawing or in selecting one 
already made. What you would see if you were looking down 
on the object from directly above is called the top view or plan. 
What you would see if in front is the front view or front elevation; 
if opposite the side, the szde view or side elevation.” If the 
other side or the rear are different, there will be another side 
view or a rear view. Details within an object, or parts you 
cannot see, are often shown by dotted lines (523). Sometimes 
a ‘‘section’’3 drawing is made to show what would be seen if 

t Such a drawing is on a scale of 4%" = 1'or 4” =1'. ITf6” = 1’, the 
drawing is called half-sized. If 3’’ = 1’, it is quarter-sized. 

2 This is merely a rough explanation. The top, front, or side views are, 
strictly speaking, the way each would appear if you could look at it from an 


infinite distance. 
3 Latin, sectto, from secare, to cut. 


Some Fundamental Principles —_133 


the object, or some part of it, were cut through (483, 494). 
With complicated objects separate drawings of the details are 
made. Sometimes, for a simple object, a plan and one eleva- 
tion are enough. Sometimes many views, sections, and detail 
drawings are needed. Dimensions are shown between arrows, 
and various kinds of lines are used for different purposes. 
Use the dimensions stated instead of measuring the drawing, 
for the dimensions are more likely to be accurate.’ References: 
Problems in Mechanical Drawing, BENNETT. Mechanical 
Drawing, ERMELING, FISCHER, and GREENE. Mechanical 
Drawing, FRENCH and SVENSON. 

274. A Blue print is a copy of a working-drawing, made by 
placing sensitized paper behind a tracing of the drawing, and 
exposing to light in a photographic printing-frame. After 
sufficient exposure the sensitized paper is washed and the 
black lines of the drawing become white lines on the blue 
print. 





275. The unit of lumber measurement is represented by 
a board one foot square and one inch thick.? This contains 


t In factories, for some kinds of cabinet work, a full-sized drawing is made 
accurately on a board. This is called a rod, and the workman uses it asa 
guide. 

2A board 1” thick, 12’ wide, and 12’ long contains 12 feet, board 
measure. A board 1” thick, 6’ wide, and 12’ long contains 6 board feet. 


134 Woodworking 


144 cubic inches, and any piece containing 144 cubic inches, 
as shown above, is a board foot. Most lumber is sold by the 
board foot, the price being set by the M (1,000 feet). Thus, if 
pine boards are selling at $100 an M, one foot will cost ten 
cents. Lumber comes in the rough (not planed) or planed. 
If planed on one side, the symbol S1S (surfaced one side) is 
used. If planed on two sides, S28. 

276. To find the number of feet in a piece of lumber 
multiply the thickness (inches) by the width (inches) by the 
length (feet) and divide by 12.” 

277. To estimate the cost, multiply the number of board 
feet by the price for one foot or for one M. Make liberal 
allowance for waste. This varies with every job. Add to the 
estimate for lumber any items of hardware, paint, varnish, etc. 

278. Bill of Materials. This should include whatever items 
are required for the work in hand. Set down the most impor- 
tant parts first, giving thickness, width and length of each in 
the order named,—length always being with the grain (292). 
For example: 


Name} No. ; Price Hard- 
of of |Remarks|Thick-|width|Length Plan-|Board| 4 |Cost|ware, |Cost| Lotal 
Piece |Pieces ness ing | feet | Poot etc. Cost 


——<—<— | ————————_ |__| —_—_—_____._ | ——— | — | | | | | ff _ | 


for use in the shop you can easily make out a simple Stock 
Bill giving any details required." For example: 


Thus to measure twelve-foot stock simply find the width in inches. If the 
board tapers, measure at the middle. In case of a plank (more than one 
inch thick), multiply the width in inches by the thickness of the plank. 
One 3” thick, 7’’ wide and 12’ long contains 21 board feet. This method is 
easily applied to lumber when the length or width is a convenient multiple 
or divisor of 12. Stock thinner than 1” is usually measured as if 1” thick. 
Tables are published for quickly obtaining lumber measurements. Lumber 
is graded and priced according to quality. 

*In manufacturing shops length may come first, width next, and 
thickness last. 


Some Fundamental Principles 135 


Mes No. Finished Finished Finished 


Piece Pees Sead Thickness Width Length 


en, es se en 


A FEW ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION, OFTEN 
VIOLATED 


279. Importance of diagonal members. Make a triangle 
with three strips. Push or pull it sideways and it will hold 
its shape, unless enough force be applied to break it. Make 





a rectangle with four strips. A little pushing or pulling side- 
ways will alter the shape. Add a diagonal, making two tri- 
angles. Now pushing or pulling sideways will not alter the 
shape, unless you apply a breaking force. ‘This principle is 
applied to innumerable structures, to prevent change of shape 
or destruction. 


A Cc 





B D 


Y 


280. A gate is often built as shown, for example. At first 
the diagonal measurements AD and BC are equal. Such a 


136 Woodworking 


gate soon sags, however, even from its own weight alone. 
The distance AD becomes longer and BC shorter than at 
first, as A and D are pushed farther apart while B and C are 
drawn nearer together. 









“Thalh Vices 
iene cit 





281. Tie A and D together with a diagonal rod and the 
gate will keep its shape, except for a slight sagging as the 
joints settle to a bearing, curable by tightening the rod. 
A rod is stronger for a pulling strain than a strip of wood. 
Or, a wooden brace or strut will prevent B and C from being 
drawn nearer together. A brace stands a pushing strain 
better than a rod, which would bend. Sagging gates, cleated 
doors, etc., often require a diagonal brace one way or a tie 
the other. For rough work a wire twisted can sometimes 
be used (237). 





282. Diagonal members are often omitted in the frame- 
work of light buildings, where the boarding is fastened to so 
many parts of the frame with so many nails as to give a 
stiffening effect more or less like that from diagonal bracing. 


Some Fundamental Principles —_137 


In such cases temporary diagonal boards, or ‘‘laths,”’ are 
usually nailed on to keep the frame in shape while boarding. 





283. Diagonal corner braces are used for a large, impor- 
tant structure, so that the frame will hold its shape without 
being dependent upon the boarding or nailing. 





DIAGONAL BRACING 
BY ANCIENT EGYPTIANS 


284. Diagonal boarding is usually considered better than 
horizontal or vertical in buildings of the better class, but the 
frame also should be braced diagonally, or shrinkage of the 
diagonal boarding may force the frame out of shape. See 
also Crate-making (342, 343). 

285. In case of a roof made as shown, the collar-beam 
(and also the floor timber below), by completing a triangle, 
holds the rafters in place and prevents the pushing out of the 
sides of the building. From such examples we see that all 


138 Woodworking 





rectangular structures subject to strain should be diagonally 
braced or tied.* 





286. Cross-strain, Tension, Compression, and other 
strains.? Lay a twig across two supports. Hang a weight in 


*An old-fashioned wooden lattice bridge illustrates these principles. 
Pupils of the writer have made little bridges of this type, 6’ or 8’ long, 
and 14” high, with strips of soft pine 7/3’ thick x */,’ wide. While 
any strip could be broken with two fingers, these bridges held thousands 

is } 
ei J 





2 D SRO GE CEE SIRS REMC 
{4 WAAL AN AR ARSE ASAE SS 
Oe Re SEE We Ree HN ee eM EE ES SS 


of pounds and required a system of long levers to break them. This 
shows the strength derived from combination of individually weak mem- 
bers arranged diagonally; and also that a model is much stronger propor- 
tionately than a large structure. This is not a scientific construction for a 
modern bridge, though when lumber was very abundant many such bridges 
were built, and some are still standing. 

2 A piece of wood may be strained or destroyed in several ways: by being 
stretched or pulled apart,—tenston; it may be crushed or pushed together, 
—compression; it may be broken across,—transverse, or cross-strain; it may 
be twisted apart by torsion; or cut across by shearing. It may be broken or 
injured by any or several of these strains, 


Some Fundamental Principles —_139 


the middle. As the twig bends, the bark will pucker on the 
upper side, showing that the top is being shortened or com- 
pressed. The bark will be stretched, and perhaps cracked, on 
the under side, showing that the lower part is being length- 
ened or pulled out (subjected to tension). 

287. When a beam is used for a floor-timber in a building, 
or for a bridge, it will have the same cross-strain on it as the 
twig (286), shortening (compression) in the upper part and 
pulling (tension) in the lower part. 


»—e Compression «—« 
B 





<——«/eNsion »m—> 


288. This applies not merely to one timber or stick, but 
to structures built up of many pieces, like the trusses (sides) 


The strength of a piece of wood or metal to resist crushing, tension, or 
shearing is in proportion to the area of its section. A piece with a section 
two square inches in area is twice as strong as one with a section one square 
inch in area. The strength to resist a transverse or cross-strain is as the 
width, inversely as the length, and as the square of the depth. Doubling the 
width doubles the strength. Doubling the length divides the strength by 
two. Doubling the depth multiplies the strength by four. That is,a beam 
four inches wide will support twice as much weight as one two inches wide. 
A beam ten feet long will support twice as much weight as one twenty feet 
long. A beam eight inches deep will support four times as much weight as 
one four inches deep. 

In making splices and other joints where strength is required, it should be 
borne in mind that the strength of any structure is limited by the strength 
of its weakest part, therefore the aim should be to make a joint or splice as 
nearly equal in strength to the parts it connects as possible. The joint best 
for one strain is usually not the best for another, therefore the fewer different 
strains a joint is subjected to the better. A plain butt joint fastened to 
prevent movement sideways is sufficient for compression, but often requires 
strengthening for cross-strain also. Joints to be subjected to tension 
require careful planning to preserve so far as possible the full strength. 


140 Woodworking 


of a bridge, or of a roof. The whole structure is always under 
cross-strain. If there is no load on it, it is under cross-strain 
from its own weight, and, like the twig, the upper part is 
under compression, the lower part under tension.* 





289. The simplest way to bridge over a short distance is — 
to lay a beam on edge. For a wider distance the beam (or 
girder) can be supported by braces as shown. The weight on 
the beam, bearing downward, will push or thrust on the braces 
and they will be under compression, one-half the thrust being 
put upon each brace, which in turn pushes against the 
abutment. 

290. The braces can be put on top, and the middle of the 
beam hung from their apex. When the beam begins to bend 


* To destroy a wooden railroad bridge, saw through the lower chords, as 
they are called (A), and the bridge wili fall, for the lower part is under the 
strain of tension and trying to pull apart allthe time. If you saw the upper 
chord (B) instead, the bridge will still stand, for the top is under com- 
pression and the saw-kerf will immediately close up like any butt joint that 
is being pushed together. In fact the pressure will bind the saw unless the 
kerf is forced open. The bridge will not be so strong, since an unsecured 
butt-joint might work out of place, but it will not fall unless the sawed 
chord be moved. 


A beam will bear twice as much weight equally distributed over its 
length as when applied at the centre. In such structures a good deal of the 
material is arranged at the top and bottom to resist the compression and 
tension to the best advantage, as in the truss just shown, or in a common 1 
beam of iron. 


Some Fundamental Principles = 141 


with the weight applied, it pulls on the rod at the middle. 
This rod, hanging from the apex, pushes the braces, and the 





braces, being fastened to the beam, in turn put the beam 
under tension. 


Comp ression 





291. A beam is often strengthened or stiffened as shown. 
The weight at W bending the beam, pushes the strut or block 
A, and this pulls on the rod, which applies compression to 
the beam. 

These illustrations show the general principles which, often 
carried much farther, apply to the construction of many 
comparatively simple pieces of work, as well as complicated 
roofs, bridges, and the like. 


PARING AND FINISHING TO SHAPE 


292. Grain. Piece of wood magnified, showing fibres run- 
ning lengthways. 





142 Woodworking 


ee 
ee 
———$ 

Se ESS 


STRAIGHT GRAIN CROOKED GRAIN 





These show as lines on the surface, and are called the 
‘‘erain.”’ While you can generally tell by these markings on 
the surface, you can not always rely on them, for the direc- 
tion of the grain is often complex and not readily detected. 





293. Trimming to a line. Whether using hatchet, chisel, 
drawknife, knife, or other tool, cut with the grain if possible. 
You can often score the waste wood with cuts nearly to the 
line. This breaks up the grain of the wood and, with crooked- 
grained stock, makes the paring easier. Then trim carefully, 
with the grain if possible, to the line with hatchet, chisel, 


Some Fundamental Principles 143 


draw-knife, or other tool. See 159. Use a shearing cut when 
you can (77). See Chisel (83, etc.). 





294. When you cannot saw a curve, make saw-kerfs nearly 
to the line. Remove the waste wood with chisel, draw-knife, 
or other tool, cutting with the grain. Then trim to the line. 
Cutting against the grain is harder, and usually leaves the 
surface rough, or splits off what you wish to keep. See also 
Plane (132, etc.), and Chisel (83, etc.). 

295. Toshape objects like hammer or axe handles, paddles, 
spoons, curved table-legs, etc., first cut to the outline on two 
opposite sides and then to the outline on the other sides. See 
637. Then the rounding or modelling can be done with 
shave, gouge, chisel, rasp, file, etc. Such work, as well as the 
simpler forms of shaping, is now usually done with machinery, 
special machinery often being used. 


SQUARING STOCK TO DIMENSIONS 


296. Squaring to dimensions may involve measuring and 
marking (13), squaring (22), gauging (28), sawing (99), and 
planing (132). 

First get out the piece a little larger than the required or 
final dimensions; perhaps */,’’ thicker, '/,’’ wider, and 1/,” 
longer. If it be curled, warped or winding, allow more thick- 
ness than if the surface be flat. 


297. Working-face or Face-side. See 27, 72. Select the 
better side. Plane it flat. Call it the working-face or face-side, 





144. Woodworking 


and mark it at the edge as shown, or in any way to distinguish 
it. Joint-edge. Select the better edge. Plane it straight, and 
also square with the working-face. Call it the joint-edge or 
working-edge, and mark it as shown, or in any way to dis- 
tinguish it. 





298. Mark required width with the gauge on both sides, 
gauging from the joint-edge already made, as shown by lines 
ab and cd. Cut away the wood to the gauge lines just marked. 





299. Mark thickness on both edges with the gauge, 
gauging from the working-face or face-side, already made flat. 
Plane to the gauge lines just made. 





300. Mark one end square, unless it be so already. Saw or 
plane (or both saw and plane) the end just marked, until it 
is square, using the block-plane or smoothing plane if you 
have one. 





301. Measure and mark the required length from the end 
just squared, using rule and square. Saw or plane (or saw and 


Some Fundamental Principles —145 


plane) to the lines just marked. If you have done the work 
accurately, the piece is now ‘“‘squared up,’’ or squared to 
dimensions. * 


nee et ek 
ae 


)4. JOINT/EDGE \2 
302. Summary. 


True side I. 

True edge 2, square with I. 

True edge 3, parallel with 2, and at the required 
distance from it. 

True side 4, parallel with 1 and at the required 
distance from it. 

True end 5, square with I and 2. 

True end 6, square with I and 2 and at the required 
distance from end 5. 





t The squaring-up process is one of the fundamental operations of wood- 
working, but stock is now trued and squared so much more quickly, easily, 
and better by machinery than by hand that going through the whole oper 
ation by hand is not necessary for ordinary work. Parts of the process 
are often required, because of lack of available machinery, and there are 
occasional cases in which the whole operation must be done by hand. 
Therefore the beginner should be able to do it, for the principle on which 
it is based has many applications in both hand and machine work. ‘There 
are other processes than the one given above, but the distinctions are not 
important for the beginner. 

Theoretically, if the working-face, joint-edge, and one end are made true 
and square with one another, planing to the marks on the opposite side, 
edge, and end is all that is necessary, without testing to see that the surface 
is straight and true. But, practically, no part of the work will be perfect; 
therefore if dimensions are more important than accuracy of shape, there is 
no object in testing after the work has been cut to the lines, for any alter- 
ation would change the dimensions. On the contrary, if accuracy of shape 
is more important than exact dimensions, the surfaces and angles should be 
tested and corrected, even though this makes a slight change in the 
dimensions. 


146 Woodworking 


QUESTIONS 


1. What does a working-drawing show? 
2. What ts a blue-print? 
3. In what order ts it customary to give the three dimensions of a ptece of 
lumber? 
4. What does S2S mean? 
5. What ts the unit of measurement for lumber? 
6. What ts a board foot? 
7. How do you find the number of board feet in a piece of lumber? 
8. Whatts a plank? 
9. How do you find the width of a tapering board? 
10. Show how to make out a Bill of Materials—a Stock Bull for shop use. 
11. Show the importance of diagonal members. Give illustrations. 
12. What is the object of a collar beam in a roof? To what stress is it sub- 
jected? 
13. Define tension, compression, cross-strain, torsion, and show how these 
stresses are developed in large and small structures. 
14. How do the dimensions of a piece of timber affect its strength when under 
cross strain? 
15. What is the most important thing when paring or trimming to line? 
16. Show simple ways to remove waste wood. 
17. In shaping odd-shaped forms, like a wooden spoon, a paddle, a model 
boat, what ts the process? 
18. Show the process of squaring a piece of stock to given dimensions by 
hand. 


SOME COMMON OPERATIONS 
ASSEMBLING 


303. Assembling. How to put work together depends on 
what you are making. Look over all the parts to see that 
they are ready to put together. Before using glue, see that the 
parts fit. 

Each type of construction has its own problems. Therefore 
study the working-drawings to see which are the most impor- 
tant parts. Assemble these first, as a rule. You cannot assume, 
because all the different parts are of the right size and shape, 
that the whole object will have the right shape when the parts 
are put together. | 

While assembling, keep testing by eye and with testing 
tools, particularly while putting the main structural’ parts 
together, for mistakes in the general shape are worse than in 
the details. Small work can usually be tested accurately by 
eye, with squares, etc. Have horses for assembling. They 
can be padded for nice work. 

















304. Typical examples: A common box. Nail sides to 
ends. Then nail bottom, fitting sides and ends to it. If the 
parts have all been cut accurately, this will make the angles of 


147 


148 Woodworking 


the box correct. Test however with square, as you nail. Add 
the top. 

305. A common four-legged table or stool. Assemble two 
end legs and the rail which connects them. Also, the two 


Anat 


opposite legs and rail. After these are dry, join with the two 
connecting rails. Then add the top. In general, the ends of 
tables, sideboards, settles, bureaus, bookcases, and the like 
are assembled first; then the lengthways or connecting parts, 
rails, shelves, seats, etc., finally adding the top, if there be 
one. Do not use glue in attaching table tops, the tops of large 
seats, or similar broad surfaces (747). Panels must not be 
glued in place (376). 






Hees 
{Sarna Tif 








306. A mitred picture frame. Put one corner together. 
Also the opposite corner. When these are dry, fasten the 
remaining corners. See 508. 

307. Frame of a one-storied building. Put the sills in 
place, then the corner-posts, the studding, the plates. The 
floor beams and first floor are often laid at first, for convenience. 
Boarding of the sides is usually done as soon as possible. 
Then the rafters, ridgepole, if there be one, collar beams, and 
the boarding of the roof. Then door and window frames, 


Some Common Operations 149 


corner boards, clapboarding or shingling, and various other 
details. 






CORNER POST 








308. Case work. Suppose ABCDEFGH represents the 
outline or general shape of a bookcase, cabinet, wardrobe, 
bureau, or other large rectangular object. Before assembling 
the whole, test the side ACEG until it is rectangular and flat. 
Do the same with the opposite side BDFH, the top ABEF, 
and the bottom CDGH. When you put these parts together, 
besides using the eye and the square, measure the diagonals 
of the front, AD and BC, with an extension rule or with two 
sticks (17). If not equal, make them so by hand, or with 
clamps, or by inserting a temporary brace. Do the same with 
the diagonals EH and FG at the back. Still, the front edges 


150 Woodworking 


ABCD and the back edges EFGH may be out of line (winding); 
therefore measure the remaining diagonals AH and BG, ED 
and FC, and correct any error in the same way. Of course 
all bracing sticks must be left in place, like the clamps, until 
the glue is hard. Two persons can do such work better than 
one. 

309. Test the sills of a building with the level and test the 
diagonals from corner to corner with the steel tape or with 
sticks. Plumb the corner posts. 

310. For work spaced at regular intervals, like lattice work, 
fence pickets, etc., take a piece of wood of the same width 
as the space between the pieces, and hold it beside each 
piece to measure the distance at which to nail the next 
one. 

311. Nails, screws, glue, bolts, strap-irons, corner-irons, 
draw-dogs, and many other fasteners are used in different 
kinds of assembling. See 450. Hardware fittings, hinges, locks, 
escutcheons, etc., are fitted before the finishing process. For 
nice work these fittings are then removed and put on again 
after the finishing. Paint the joints of unprotected outdoor 
work, like swing-frames, wagon-bodies, etc., with lead paint 
before assembling; and do not force bolt heads into the wood, 
as the depressions retain water and hasten decay. 

Summary. Study the construction. Put main parts to- 
gether first. For cabinet work and the like, first rehearse the 
process. Have parts marked, clamps and glue at hand. Keep 
testing. Test diagonally. 


BENDING WOOD 


312. Bending wood. Essentials: moisture and heat. Some 
woods, like oak, bend better than others, for their fibres are 
better able to adjust themselves to a change of shape. Use 
straight-grained stock. Dry stock needs moisture. Steam it 
in a steam-chest,—a wooden or metal box connected with a 
steam-pipe. Bend at once after steaming. If you cannot do 


Some Common Operations 151 


that, soak in boiling water or even cold water; or pour 
boiling water over pieces wrapped in cloth or buried in sawdust 
or sand, well covered, and leave to soak in the steam. Long 
boiling weakens the wood, as does very great heat. Steamed 
wood stays bent well, but boiled wood often straightens more 
or less after it is dry, so bend it too much, unless it is to be 
fastened. 

Slender pieces of dry wood can be bent by soaking in hot 
water and then applying a high degree of heat. Contrive a 
“‘form’’ for bending. Try to fit some kind of a strap (sheet 
metal or even a thin strip of wood) to prevent splintering on 
the outside of a sharp bend. Some pieces can be bound to the 
form with canvas or adhesive tape. Keep bent until thorough- 
ly dry. Bending is often done by end pressure, with a strap 
outside. 





313. Steam-chest of wood, easily made. The pipe shown 
can be connected with any steam pipe, or even with a tightly 
covered kettle. One end of the box is tight. The stock to be 
steamed is inserted through the open end, which is then 
stuffed with burlap or rags, or can have a hinged door. 





152 Woodworking 





314. Suggestions for forms for bending. 
315. Where only one side will show, and strength is not 
important, make saw-kerfs across the back side. After bend- 





—— 
= 









106° = 


ing, wedges can be fitted and glued in the kerfs, if they are 
on the convex side, to increase the strength. 

316. Where appearance is not important, two or more thin 
strips can sometimes be used, or a piece can be split and then 
bent. Thin pieces can be glued together after bending by using 
forms or cauls. To bend a moulding it sometimes can be sawed 


Some Common Operations 153 





into strips lengthways, preferably where the sawing will show 
the least, then bent and nailed, or glued in place. 


317. Bent wood is strongest and least likely to splinter 
when bent at right angles to the medullary rays (731) and in 
the direction of the annual rings (731), as at A; but is more 
easily split by nails than if bent in the direction of the medul- 
lary rays, as at B. 


BEVELING AND CHAMFERING 


318. Beveling and Chamfering. A bevel extends across 
the whole edge or surface. A chamfer does not, but makes an 


additional surface,—cuts away the angle formed by two 
surfaces. For nice work mark with a pencil, for the gauge 
may deface the work. Plane to the line, or pare with chisel 
or other tool, with the grain if possible. When chamfering or 
beveling an edge with the wood in the vise hold the fingers of 
the left hand against the wood to steady the plane (141). 
Guides to attach to the plane, for planing at any angle, with 
the wood in the vise, can be bought. Test chamfers and bevels 
by eye and with the bevel (34), etc. Chamfering and beveling 
are best done with the Jointer (654), the Circular saw (585),. 
the Sander (664). 


154 Woodworking 














320. If the end also is to be chamfered, do it first, with a 
shearing cut (153). Some cut the end last. 





with the chisel. Trim the ends carefully or cuts will be left 
to deface the work. 





322. A chamfer at the edge of a board can be cut with 
the board flat on the bench, tipping the plane and sliding it 
along with the edge of the sole resting on the bench. 


BOX-MAKING 


323. Box-making requires accuracy,—making every piece 
rectangular, every edge square. Best done by machine. 


Some Common Operations 155 


324. A common type. Nail sides to ends. Put bottom in 
place. Adjust sides and ends to bottom, and nail. Test with 
Square when nailing. Then add top. In boxes like this, have 





the grain of the sides and ends run in the same direction— 
around the box, as shown. Nails fasten the sides to the ends 
fully as strongly as screws, because screws do not hold well 
in end-grain. Glue has not much value with end butt joints, 
usually. Screws hold the top and bottom more strongly than 
nails, because they are driven into side-grain. Glue should 
not be used for the top and bottom, except for very small 
boxes. 





325. Fora box like this have the grain run the other way 
(lengthways). For the four long joints, screws and glue can 
be used if you wish, because these joints are all side-grain, 
and the grain runs in the same direction in all the pieces. 
Therefore, expansion or contraction of the width of the pieces 
will not affect the joint. The four pieces can all be of the 
same width, and can lap as in the second illustration, if you 
wish. 

326. Result of fitting the bottom tightly between the sides. 
Swelling of the bottom has forced the joints open. Shrinking 


156 Woodworking 





would have left a crack. Fitting a bottom in this way is only 
suitable for quite small boxes, because swelling and shrinking 
of wood cannot be prevented (747). 





327. Another box shown bottom up. For nice work fit 
bottom loosely into a rabbet (567) cut in the lower edge of 
the sides and ends, or into a groove cut just above the bottom, 
as in a drawer (387). 





328. A rabbeted joint is good for a box, is neat and incon- 
spicuous. The corner can be nailed both ways and can be 
rounded. In a case like that shown, the bottom can be fitted 
in a groove on the inside. Glue can be used also, because of 
the shoulder. Dovetailing (519, 520) is the most workmanlike 
way to fit box corners for the best work, but requires much 


Some Common Operations 157 


skill and is now done by hand much less often than formerly. 
Mitred joints (508) are sometimes used but are seldom very 
strong, unless reinforced by splines or keys, or combined with 
a rabbet, dovetail, or other joint. Such joints require much 
skill to make by hand, but are suitable for very small boxes of 
valuable wood, and in other special cases. Corner blocks 
(450) glued, nailed, or screwed can sometimes be used for 
strengthening some parts of boxes. 





329. Sides and ends grooved into corner-posts. Sometimes 
used for elaborate chests. Each side and end is often framed 
with a panel (372), and then set in grooves in the corner-posts. 
Sometimes a rabbeted post is used to cover the joint. 





330. Other simple forms. When a box is to open below 
the top, fasten top in place, and then cut the box in two at 


158 Woodworking 





the desired place with a fine circular saw or by hand. Drive 
no nails near the line to be sawed. If necessary to saw by 
hand, gauge two parallel lines around the box, the width of 
a saw-kerf apart, and saw between them carefully. Saw from 
each corner in turn. Trim the edges with a long plane (154). 

331. Lids or covers, except for rough boxes, should be 
strengthened and kept from warping by cleats at the ends, 
or on the under side (365), or by framing or paneling (372). 
If the top and bottom of a large box are boarded lengthways 
there will be fewer cracks, but less strength, than if boarded 


332. Sliding lid for small boxes. The lid must have some 
play sideways, as with panels (376). See Grooving (441). To 
prevent the grooves showing at the back end of the sides, 
stop them before reaching the end, and finish with a chisel, 





333. Overhanging top and bottom sometimes used for a 
chest to avoid paneling. 3 


Some Common Operations 159 











ED 
LIAL of 









GOOD CONSTRUCTION 
FOR LID 
: i] 








334. Common form for chest. Lid is framed and panelled. 
See 372. 


335. Box construction used for seats. Cushion can be 
added. Lid can be hinged. 


160 Woodworking 


| 


ODRAWER OQ. 
tea a a 


336. Box or chest with drawer. 





337. Dado or grooved joint common for tanks, cisterns, 
etc. The liquid swells the wood and helps to make the joint 
tight. The bottom can be grooved into the sides and ends (441). 
For tanks, apply white lead freely in the joints. See Dado, 463. 


338. Simple form for feet. A great variety of feet are 
sometimes used, as claw feet, etc. 

339. Packing boxes. Common packing boxes are often 
weak at the ends, to overcome which various styles of re- 
inforcement are used. Corrugated fasteners (202) are often 
used to strengthen edge-joints. Using hardwood for the ends 
and cleats, into which the nails are driven, increases the strength 
of the box. Cement-coated nails hold more strongly than 
smooth ones; smooth ones better than barbed. See 208. 
Metal straps also add much to the strength. 


Some Common Operations 161 





340. Re-inforcing ends of Packing boxes. 

341. Packing crates. The weakness of crates, as often 
made, is largely due to lack of strength at the corners, to 
lack of diagonal bracing, and to insufficient nailing. 





342. ‘‘ Three-way ” corner or lock-joint for packing-crate. 
The best way when the crate is shaped like a common box. 
A strong corner, because each piece is nailed in two directions, 
and the nails are all driven into side-grain. A nail driven into 
side-grain holds from one-third to one-half more than if driven 
into end-grain. This corner helps toward diagonal bracing, 
and also cannot come apart, or be taken apart, without 
drawing the nails or splitting the wood. If the crate has an 
odd shape and requires unusual bracing or crosspieces to keep 
the contents in place, some other form may sometimes be 
better. 


162 Woodworking 





STRONG CRATE—DIAGONAL BRACING THIS CRATE IS MUCH WEAKER © 


343. Experiments at the Forest Products Laboratory, and 
by others, have shown by tests how much stronger diagonally 
braced crates are than when the slats are all parallel with the 
edges. Less material is required also. The omission of a 
diagonal on even one of the six sides lessens the strength to 
a considerable degree. 


CARVING 


344. A Few Elementary Operations in Simple Carved 
Work. The true carver can not get his inspiration from 
a book, nor even from a master, but must have in him 
that artistic feeling, and power of execution, without which 
his work will not rise above the level of manual dexterity. 
No attempt can be made to teach the art of carving in a few 
pages, but it is well, however, to have some understanding of 
the methods by which the simpler forms are shaped, for the 
general woodworker often has occasion to work wood into 
odd shapes. 

Elementary practise in carving can well precede the more 
mechanical forms of woodwork, for the training of hand and 
eye and mind given by it are of great value, not merely in the 


Some Common Operations 163 


way of general development, but as increasing one’s ability 
to handle the more mechanical processes later. 

It is common to advocate beginning with soft wood, but 
there are some advantages in starting with good, clear-grained 
oak, not very hard. Pine, black walnut, mahogany, cherry, 
gum, and other woods can also he used, if straight-grained. 

345. The simplest tools are similar to other chisels and 
gouges, but are sharpened on both sides, and are of a great 
variety of sizes and degrees of curvature. The edges must be 
ground and whetted to be very keen, and must be kept so by 
frequent stropping. They should not be used for other work. 

A carver’s bench is usually a little higher than a cabinet- 
maker’s or a carpenter’s, but a special bench is not necessary 
unless much carving is to be done, as it is easy to block up 
the work. The bench should face the light, which should come 
down on the work if possible. Carving should be done stand- 
ing, for it is hard to get the proper freedom of movement while 
sitting. A variety of holdfasts and clamping devices to keep 
the work in place are in use, but simple work can usually be 
held by the vises, clamps, wedges, etc., used in ordinary 
woodwork. 

The variety of odd-shaped carving tools occasionally used 
by carvers is very great, but for the work of the beginner or 
the general woodworker only a few of the simplest kinds are 
needed. A couple of skew-chisels, half a dozen gouges, a 
V-tool, veining-tool, and a couple of straight chisels are enough 
to do a great deal of simple work. More can be added when 
needed. It is well to have the handles of carving tools of 
different pattern from those of the other tools. The outside 
of a carving gouge or parting tool is sharpened much the same 
as other tools, but the inside bevel is made by rubbing with 
a slip shaped to fit the tool (262). Lay the tools on bench 
before you but behind the work, with the handles away from 
you, as it is quicker to pick the tools up by the blades and to 
select the tool required. 


164 Woodworking 


346. Clamp the wood firmly, so that both hands can be free. 
Push with the hand which grasps the handle, check and 
control with the hand which governs the blade. (See Chisel, 
83, etc., 93). When the pushing force of the hand is not 
sufficient, a slight blow can be given the tool handle with the 
hand, but it is usually better.to use the mallet. The direction 
of the lines of the design and of the grain require continual 
change in the direction of the cutting, and it is not practicable 
to keep turning the work, therefore one must become ambi- 
dextrous in using the tools. Learn at the start to work either 
right or left handed and to cut in any direction. In all cases 
remember to remove the wood by cutting, and never pry or 
tear it away. The picture of what is to be carved should be 
clear and definite in the mind, lest the work become mere 
mechanical copying of a pattern. 





347. Regard the grain of the pattern and not that of the 
background. Thus to cut around the outline of the narrow 
band shown, cut in different directions as shown by the 
arrows. 

348. A simple flat outlined design can be done by lightly 
cutting the outline with such tools as will fit (as shown at the 
left), cutting only deeply enough to clearly mark the outline. 
Try to use gouges of such curvature that the successive cuts 
will run together in smooth and flowing lines. Or the design 
can be outlined with a very light cut made with the V- or 
parting-tool (as shown at the right) or the veining-tool, which 


Some Common Operations 165 





is a very small gouge. Then stamp the background with a 
catver’s punch. For small places and corners use a nail filed 
from four sides to a point. 





349. Tocutasimple scroll (shown at the left), first roughly 
sketch the design with chalk or pencil, and then go over it 


166 | Woodworking 


carefully with pencil. It is well at first to mark over the 
background, as the beginner is apt not to distinguish the 
design clearly. With a small gouge run a groove around the 
pattern, just outside of the line (shown at the right), cutting 
in different directions when the grain requires. In all cases 
when cutting angles or corners, whether to cut toward, or 
from, the corner or angle depends upon the grain of the wood. 
Of course you cannot cut cleanly from an inside angle with a 
gouge, but must finish by cutting toward the angle, or with 
some other tool. 







RESULT OF 
NOT CUTTING 
IS=GROOVE CLOSE 
1—— TO OUTLINE 








350. After thus roughly outlining the design, carefully cut 
on the line down to the level of the background, as shown at 
the left. The mallet can be used for this. It is not necessary 
to have a gouge to fit every curve exactly. For an outside 
curve a gouge flatter than the curve can be used, and for an 
inside curve one ‘‘quicker’”’ than the curve. As the groove 
first cut has removed most of the wood near the outline, the 
chips will readily break off in the waste wood, without dam- 
aging the part to be kept. If the grooving were omitted the 
slender parts might be broken, as shown at the right. 

351. The rest of the background can now be cut away, 
using as large a gouge as may be convenient, and finally 
smoothed with a flat gouge. The angles and corners must be 


Some Common Operations 167 






I yi” 
{na iN 


cut with whatever tool will best do the ath but the wood 
should in all cases be removed by clean cutting and not by 
prying. Do not try to make the background absolutely true, 
as if done by machine. The slight irregularity or waviness 
which naturally results from freehand work is proper in carved 
work. The background can be stamped as before, or, as is 
more commonly done, smoothed as nicely as may be with 
short cuts of a flat ‘gouge. 





352. Little hollowing cuts make a good background for 
many designs. 

353. After a design has thus been outlined and the back- 
ground cut the raised parts require to be shaped. In a design 
like that shown in 348 at the right, there is little to do but to 
cut down where the parts overlap. Sometimes the outline 
is undercut by sloping the handle of the tool outwards. 


168 Woodworking 


354. When the design is to be molded as shown in the 
illustration, for example, gouges of somewhat flatter curvature 














i! 
i 
I 


iT 
{\ 


-_ —_— er erm" 


Ean 


ti 
Nd 


Cy 
WK 
| 
\ 
\\ 


i ; 


Ny 


Vit] 
Vy 


‘| 
| 
het 


| 


{ 
l 
(| 
’ Ny gel’ 


| 
{I 


than those of the design are used. The cutting should be done 
with the grain, stopping and cutting the other way when the 
grain requires, on the principle shown (347). 

The general process with work in high relief and odd-shaped 
or projecting forms is first to remove the superfluous wood, 
“rough out”’ the shape with such gouges as may be required, 
and then cut the details. Sometimes much of the waste wood 
can be removed by sawing. In roughing off the wood, begin 
at points distant from the final shape and work toward it, so 
that the waste wood only will break off, without danger of 
damaging the part to be saved. Sometimes waste wood can 
be quickly and safely removed by the use of the bits and 
bit-stock. When some part projects much above the general 
surface, a piece, or pieces, can be glued on and carved after- 
wards, but gluing is not to be recommended unless necessary. 
When the work is very thick and heavy, or one part much 
higher than the rest, building-up by gluing is sometimes the 
only practicable way. 

355. To shape the end of the arm of a chair, first round 
the end with the band-saw or by hand, and then cut down 


Some Common Operations 169 





between the divisions of the design, as shown, thus removing 
the waste wood before trying to work the wood exactly to 
shape. 





epee ee 


356. In cutting a clawfoot as shown at the left, much of 
the waste wood can be removed by sawing as shown in the 
middle illustration. The removal of the waste wood and 
roughing out can be begun as shown at the right, and the rest 
of the shaping done on the general principles already described. 

357- In modeling with the gouge much effective work can 
often be done by giving a rotary turn or twist to the tool, 
causing a shearing cut (77, 94). Making a model first in clay 
or other plastic material is often a help. 

In all cases try to have a sharp, crisp, clean-cut effect. 
The work should stand out boldly and clearly and not appear 
to have been laboriously scrubbed into shape. 


170 Woodworking 


358. With designs like tracery, on a background, the design 
can first be sawed out, glued to the background, and then 
carved. This saves cutting away the waste wood. Although 





often done, this process is not to be advised, as a rule. Carvers 
usually prefer to cut away the background. This also avoids 
depending upon a glued joint. Open work patterns are sawed 
of course before modeling the surfaces. Simply sawing open- 
ings, as is often done, is in no sense carving, but merely scroll- 
sawing or jig-sawing. | 

359. Do not try to scrub carved work smooth with sand- 
paper. Leave it as the tool leaves it. A touch with sandpaper 
is sometimes permissible to remove a too sharp edge. Finish 
carved work either with wax or very thin shellac, never with 
varnish or a thick coating of shellac. A brush is the best thing 
for cleaning, rubbing over, and polishing carving. 

360. Norse or Scandinavian patterns are excellent for the 
learner. They cultivate freedom and boldness of execution, 
desirable for the beginner. 

361. Chip-carving, or the cutting of incised patterns of a 
geometric character, is a mechanical and routine process com- 
pared with regular wood carving. While lacking the artistic 
possibilities and educating influence of true carving, it culti- 
vates accuracy of eye and hand, and is suitable for borders 
or other decorations for a certain class of objects. The simple 
forms can be done with a chip-carving knife, or even a pocket 
knife. A little of this work is good training, but one can easily 
spend too much time on processes of this kind. 

Chamfering. See 318. 


Some Common Operations 171 


CLAPBOARDING 


362. Clapboarding. First put on door and window casings, 
corner-boards, and other outside finish. Begin clapboarding 
at the top. Lay the upper row by a line, marked with a 
straight-edge (20, 21), or chalk and line (49-50), using a few 
nails in the upper part only. Mark the ends accurately, using 
try square, and saw them carefully with a fine saw. Then slip 
the next row up under the first row until only the desired width 
is exposed. The width of the courses can be marked on a 
stick, on the outside finish of the building, or a clapboarding- 
gauge can be used. 





363. Break joints, that is, do not have the joints of one 
row in line with, or very near, those of the next row or of the 
one above that, to prevent leaking, and penetration of cold. 
Nail the first row near the lower edge with clapboard nails. 
This will hold the second row in position while the third row 
is put in place, and so on. The thin edge of the upper row 
can be covered with a strip of board or moulding. 


SS 





Ga 


364. Ifa water table is used at the bottom, as shown, bevel 
the lower edge of the last row of clapboards to fit. Sometimes 


172 Woodworking 


the clapboarding is continued to the bottom of the building. 
Siding is sometimes used. See also Flashing (418). 


CLEATING AND BATTENING 


365. Cleats or battens are used to fasten two or more 
pieces together, for stiffness or strength, to cover cracks, etc. 





366. Side cleats, as for a door or wide board. Stagger the 
nails or screws (213, 367). Do not glue, because the boards 
will expand and contract and thus may break the glued 
joints (74'77). Nails or screws give some play to the pieces. 
Nails can be clinched (216). 





367. Ifaboard is very wide, as a large drawing board, the 
screws can go through slotted holes in the cleats to allow for 
expansion and contraction of the wide board (366). These 
slots are sometimes bushed (lined) with metal. 

368. End cleat, to be nailed. Screws do not hold well in 
end-grain (224). End cleats help to keep one board from 
warping, and will also hold two or more pieces together. For 
heavy work, side cleats are stronger, but not always desirable. 
An end cleat can be grooved to fit a tongue on the end of the 


Some Common Operations i 


board, or both cleat and end of board can be grooved and a 
spline inserted (526). A dovetail can be used (527). Such work 














370. Dovetailed cleat, on underside or back side, for nice 
work. Also tapered slightly lengthways, so that it can be 
tightened. Metal cleats are sometimes inserted in kerfs or 
grooves on a similar principle. 


Sa ee 


371. Battens for covering cracks. Used for buildings which 
are boarded vertically. Also for making surface panels and 
other inside finish. See 524, etc. 


“174 Woodworking 


Coping. See Joznis (517, 518). 
Crate-making. See 341. 
Dadoing, see 463. 


DOOR-MAKING AND PANELING 


372. Doors and Panels are now made almost always by 
machinery.’ In making: the frame lay out duplicate parts 
together (70) and do all squaring and gauging from the 
joint-edges and face-sides (27, 72). The joint-edges should 
be the inside edges, the ones to come next the panel—so as 
to have the best edges at the joints. 





RAIL 


PANEL 8 fpaner 







> 
~ 


PANEL | 4, 


BE 
ft | i 


PANEL 







| MUNTIN | 


STALE 
STILE 





| MUNTIN | 
PANEL 






373+ 


374. Mark joints to prevent mistakes when assembling(71). 
Leave the stiles a little too long (for convenience in working) 


* For the simplest and cheapest way to make a rough door for a shed or 
a camp, see 366. Adding a diagonal brace makes such a door much stronger. 


Some Common Operations 175 


until after the frame is finally put together, when the project- 
ing ends (lugs) can be cut off. 

375. Mortise and tenon: is the best joint for door- and 
panel-frames (see 467). Dowelling (500) and even mitring 
(508) are used, but are less strong, usually (see 500, footnote). 
Light doors and panel-frames often have tongued and grooved 
joints (shown below), made with the circular saw, or if neces- 
sary with hand tools, and fastened with glue. 











A 





GES 





PANEL 
RIGHT 





> 
1 





Gx a Ly 
LSS Dy 


| 
( 

| | 
ae ae 

376. A panel must have room in the groove to swell and 
shrink (747), therefore the grooves in the stiles must be deeper 
than required to receive the panel. A panel must not be glued, 
but must be free to expand and contract across the grain. 
For nice work rub wax, paraffine, or tallow around the edge of 
the panel before gluing to prevent its becoming stuck. After 
all the parts are fitted, put the whole together, to be sure that 
everything fits, before applying glue. Then take apart. 








377. To put together permanently, first fit the panel in the 
grooves of the rails, without glue. A drop of glue is sometimes 


176 Woodworking 


placed at the middle of the end of the panel or a brad driven 
later to keep the panel from working to one side. 

378. Next fit ends of rails to one stile with glue. See 
(426, etc.). Put the other stile in place temporarily, in order 
to clamp the glued joints properly. See 228, etc. 





SS 








UY 






————— 








: 





LOMO APIO UASD RAD LLICANNUN\UAR 


LUA 





! 


it 


== cosas S 


After the glue is hard, glue and clamp the other stile. When 
the glue of this joint is hard, saw off the projecting ends (lugs) 
of the stiles, and smooth the surfaces. Both stiles can be 
glued at once under favorable conditions. 








SS eae 


379. Common types of panels. The third form with flush 
surface will not fit perfectly at all times, because of shrinking 
and swelling. The last form is often used for the lid of a chest 
or desk, where strength is required. Unless the surface of the 
frame can be finished before putting together, shrinkage of 
the panel will show an unfinished strip. Panels are often 
bordered by a moulding, nailed to the frame, or, better, worked 
on the frame. Plywood can be used for plain panels. 

380. Built-up doors, without panels, veneered in one 
smooth surface over a core of pine, chestnut, or other suitable 
wood, are now common. If done in the best way, such doors 
are satisfactory for as long a time as any glued-up construction 


Some Common Operations 177 


can be expected to last, but with inferior work or materials 
the result is soon very unsatisfactory. If you are building a 
house for your grandchildren, it will be safer to use the old- 
fashioned paneled doors. 

381. Simple paneling for the back of a bookcase and in 
similar cases. Plywood (758), or even wallboard, can often 
be used for such work. If fitted loosely in a rabbet, plywood 










TANT 


| 
LE gp 





and wallboard are often very satisfactory without any frame- 
work. Such panels should not be exposed to excessive damp- 
ness, and should be finished equally on both sides to prevent 
warping, etc., from atmospheric changes. 

382. Door hanging. Fitting and hinging. Saw off the pro- 
jecting stiles (lugs, 378). Plane one upright edge (the one to 
be hinged) to fit the jamb. Then hold door in position, tight 
against the top, mark where it is too large, and plane or saw 
to fit. Make the width (for a house door) about 7/3’’ less than 
that of the opening, and the height perhaps 14” less than that 
of the opening. Put door in place, fitting snugly against the 
frame on the hinge side and at the top, for a door is apt to 
settle a little. Slip something under the bottom to keep it in 
place. Mark with knife the places for the hinges on both door 
and jamb, or these can be marked first on a stick and trans- 
ferred from stick to door and jamb. For house doors the upper 
hinge is usually about 6’ from the top and the lower one 8” 
or 10” from the bottom,—generally just below the upper rail 
and just above the lower one. Do not hinge opposite the end 


178 Woodworking 


of a rail, because of the mortise and tenon. Heavy doors 
should have three hinges or butts. Mark the outline of the 
hinges on both door and frame, cut the gains (recesses for the 
leaves of the hinges), and screw on the hinges. The screws 
should have at least 1%4” of wood to screw into on the 
jamb, for house doors. If the door and frame are not flush, 
allowance for this must be made when gauging for one leaf 
of each hinge. The leaf on the door can be set a trifle deeper 
at the back side than at the front, to prevent striking the other 
leaf when closed. Each half of a ‘“‘loose-pin”’ hinge can be 
fitted and screwed on separately and the pin put in or with- 
drawn at will. There are butt-gauges for hinge fitting. The 
lock edge of a door is sometimes slightly beveled to make a 
good fit and to allow the door to swing freely, but no door 
should fit very tightly.” 

Dovetailing, see 519. 

Doweling, see 500. 


DRAWER-MAKING 


383. Drawer-making. The more accurately the case which 
holds the drawers is made the easier itis to fit the drawers so 
that they will run smoothly. Rub bayberry tallow on the run- 
ning parts. The dovetail is the best joint for a drawer, but 
requires much skill (519, 520). 





t Doors are framed, with panels, to prevent the swelling, shrinking, 
warping, and twisting which would take place if one or more wide boards 
were used, whether glued into one unbroken surface or not. The framing 
and paneling is also a decorative feature of course. The covering of other 
wide surfaces, walls, etc., with paneled work doubtless originated from the 
same reasons. As wood shrinks and swells a good deal in width, and but 


Some Common Operations 179 


384. Showing rabbeted joint at the front corners. Only 
suited for inferior work. See 461, 612, 613. 

385. Showing combination of rabbet and dado. A good 
joint and much used. Inferior to dovetailing, but quickly 





See 465. 


386. Showing dado (at the right) for the joint at the back. 
Also groove for the bottom. This can be cut with the plow or 
the circular saw (609). Dado extends only to the groove for 
the bottom. See 463, 464. 





387. Showing how the parts fit. The back does not reach 
quite to the top. The grain of the bottom runs from side to 
side of the drawer, parallel with the front. Smooth the inside 
little in length, the frame of the door will alter its shape but little, because 
it is made of comparatively narrow pieces. The thinner panels, fitting 
loosely in grooves in the frame, can change their size without changing 
the size or shape of the thicker door frame itself. Whether there be one 
panel or many the principle is the same. _ 


180 Woodworking 


of the parts before putting together. The bottom is slipped in 
after the rest of the drawer is put together. Glue or nail 
bottom at the front edge only. This allows for swelling and 
shrinking of the bottom. Small corner blocks can be glued 
underneath at the front edge only.* 





388. Showing top of drawer-front striking against a stop 
fastened to the framing above, to keep the drawer from being 
pushed in too far. The back being lower than the front, as 
just shown, allows the drawer to be removed entirely without 
hitting the stop. Also showing groove for bottom, a little 
narrower than the thickness of the bottom board, the under 
side of which is bevelled to fit the groove. 


t Every part of a drawer, as well as of the whole case, should be flat. The 
front and sides should be got out to fit very snugly. The front pieceis nearly 
always thicker than the sides, back, and bottom. Ifthe front is 7/8”, thesides 
are usually about 1%” or 3/s’’, but the dimensions are governed by the size of 
the drawer. The front should be of the same kind of wood as the outside 
of the article, but the sides, back, and bottom are often made of whitewood, 
pine, maple, etc., though sometimes the same wood is used throughout. 

The order of the process is: Ist, to get out the pieces to the required 
dimensions; 2d, to make the joints for the sides, front and back; 3d, to cut 
the grooves for the bottom in the sides and front; 4th, to fit the parts 
together. Be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom 
will assist in this) and free from winding. Test with the framing square. 
A little trimming with the plane may be required to make a drawer run 
freely, but care should be taken not to plane away too much. It is easier 
to make a drawer which is narrow and long (from front to back) run 
smoothly than one which is wide across the front, but short from front to 
back. Ifitisa trifle larger at the back than at the front it will run best, as 
it will be less likely to bind or catch. 


Some Common Operations 181 


389. Showing frame on which drawer slides. This frame 
can be grooved (441), into the upright sides and for very nice 
work can be dovetailed (466). 





390. Showing guide adjusted so that the lower part of 
the side of the drawer will slide against it. Another guide is 
fitted at the other side and the drawer slides between them. 
Drawers are more dust proof and more inaccessible if the 
openings in the frames on which they slide are filled with 
panels. Drawers sometimes run in slides at the sides, and 
sometimes a slide is made from front to back under the centre 
of the bottom, to promote smooth running. 


391. A dovetailed joint is the best way to fasten the cross 
stretcher above the drawer, if there is only one drawer, or 
above the top drawer if there are several. 


182 Woodworking 





392. The front of a drawer can project beyond the sides 
and bottom or top in a lip, which shuts against the front of 
the case,—a good way in some cases. 





393. Simple ways to attach a drawer under a shelf, table, 
or bench. The way shown at the right is only suitable for a 
small, light drawer. 

Filling, see 405. 


FINISHING 


394. Finishing is a trade in itself. Essentials for good work: 
seasoned wood; very smooth surfaces; freedom from stains, 
hardened glue, grease, finger or pencil marks, and dust; a 
warm temperature, free from draughts and dust; and good 
materials. 

395. To fill holes or cracks. Small holes, etc. Puta daub 
of hot glue on the smooth end of a piece of wood of the same 
kind as the article. With a sharp chisel, held nearly at right 
angles, scrape off enough fine wood-dust to make a paste. 


Some Common Operations 183 


Fill with this, and when thoroughly dry scrape off the surplus. 
For dark work, hold a hot iron close to a piece of stick shellac, 
of the same color as the work, over the hole, until it is filled 
to overflowing. Press with a hot knife. When hard, pare off 
the surplus and sand. Sticks of shellac of different colors can 
be bought. 

White lead putty can be used,—tinted a little darker than 
the work,—white lead mixed to a stiff paste with linseed 
oil and a little varnish. Before puttying, apply one thin coat 
of finish to stop the pores of the wood so that they will not 
draw the oil from the putty. Plaster of Paris mixed with 
shellac or thin hot glue, and colored if desired, can be used; 
also, colored wax, but the latter is not suited for large holes 
because it never becomes very hard. Large holes, etc., should 
be plugged with wood (569). 

396. To remove a dent or bruise when the wood has been 
compressed but not cut away, try wetting the bruise and 
placing a hot iron over it, with paper between. Sometimes 
wetting, allowing the wood to swell, and sandpapering, re- 
peated several times, is sufficient. 

397. General principles. For nice work, remove locks, 
hinges, and other hardware fittings before finishing. Erase 
pencil marks with rubber, and remove grease with benzine. 
Sand with No. % sandpaper, dust, sponge with luke-warm 
water, leave about two hours, sand with No. 0 or oo sand- 
paper, and dust thoroughly. Very sharp angles at the edges are 
not desirable for finishing. 

Place the surface to be finished in a horizontal position 
when you can. Face the light,—have the work between you 
and the light. Finish the least prominent parts first. Turn 
tables, chairs, etc., bottom up and do the under parts first, 
the upper surfaces last. Do edges first, then adjacent wider 
surfaces. Finish each part of the work separately. Stop where 
there is some natural break or line; never in the middle of 
a surface. Do two or three boards of a floor for the whole 


184 Woodworking 


length, then the next two or three. Pour part of the finishing 
material into a small vessel with a wire across the top over 
which to draw the brush, to remove the excess of liquid. 
In factories, finishing is done by dipping in vats, by spraying 
machines and rubbing machines. * 




















398. Work quickly. Begin near the end of the surface 
but not at the end. Start each succeeding stroke on the bare 
wood (or on the hardened coat previously laid) and brush 
toward the part already covered, to avoid ‘“‘laps.’’ After each 
stroke, brush back the other way to make the coating uniform. 
Make the final strokes with the grain of the wood. Give each 
coat of shellac, varnish, paint, etc., time to harden, before 
applying another. Haste is the cause of many failures in 
finishing. ? 

399. Staining. If you wish to color your work, the simplest - 
way is to use a ready-made stain according to the directions 
of the makers. Common stains are usually mixed with water, 
linseed oil, turpentine, or alcohol. See general directions 


1 Padded saw horses ate useful to hold the work. A turn-table, easily 
contrived, is good to secure the best light on the work. In finishing doors or 
panel-work, first do the panels (373), then the muntins, if there are any, 
then the rails, and finally the stiles, because in this way you wipe out or 
cover any daubs or “runs.’’ 

2 Applying a second coat before the first is fully hard excludes the air 
from the under layer, and prevents its drying asit should. This also often 
leads to cracking of the outer layer. You can find an extreme illustration 
of this principle in some old shop where a convenient place on the wall 
has been taken against which to slap and work brushes. You may find 
daubs of old varnish or paint, perhaps an inch thick, made up of hundreds 
of layers s!apped on before the previous ones were dry, the inside remaining 
soft after twenty years or more. 


Some Common Operations 185 


(397-8). Stir stain thoroughly. Wipe the brush a little but 
have it quite full, and apply quickly to avoid laps and streaks. 
For nice work, try the stain on a piece of waste wood of the 
same kind as the article, because stains act differently on 
different woods; and leave for a day, to allow for any chemical 
changes, for there is a good deal of chemistry about some kinds 
of staining. Earthen or glass vessels are usually best for hold- 
ing stains. 


400. Water stains. For most work, these are the best for 
the ordinary user, if properly prepared. They are cheap, easy 
to apply, penetrate the wood more than oil stains, do not 
obscure the grain of the wood, and usually give good results. 
The water raises the grain of the wood, however, therefore you 
must sand the work carefully after staining, or dampen it and 
rub down the raised grain with fine sandpaper before staining. 
A good way is to stain, then give a coat of thin shellac,‘ dry, 
and then sand lightly with fine sandpaper. 

Water stain penetrates best if wood and stain are warm. 
If part of the surface is sapwood, sponge that part with water 
before staining. Use a thin coat of shellac after staining and 
before filling. A wide brush is best. Sponge with water ahead 
of the stain if it is absorbed so fast as to lap. Rubbing with 
fine sandpaper while the work is wet will sometimes remove 
a dark lap. If end-grain stains too dark, thin stain and do 
end-grain first. ? 

401. Oil stains are easily mixed (or bought prepared) and 
easily applied, but they do not penetrate the wood so well 
as water stains, sometimes obscure the grain and give a daubed 
and muddy appearance, and frequently fade. They should 
be thoroughly rubbed in and the surplus rubbed off. If a 
filler (405) is to be used, use it before the oil stain, for rubbing 


* One part common shellac thinned with six or eight parts of alcohol. 

2In place of the regular prepared water stains, any pigment or coloring 
substance which can be dissolved in water, or even mechanically mixed 
with it, can be used; but prepared stains are cheap and reliable. 


186 Woodworking 


off the filler may injure the staining. Common paint (without 
gloss), thinned with turpentine, applied with a brush, and 
thoroughly rubbed off with a cloth, makes a simple, cheap 
stain for common work. Stains made with naphtha, turpen- 
tine, etc., penetrate deeper, and are more transparent when 
wiped off, than if made with linseed oil alone. 

If a thick oil or water stain leaves laps, try going over the 
surface again with the same stain thinned one-half, or even 
merely dampening near the edge of the laps. Oil stains are 
good for the insides of cabinets, bookcases, etc., and should 
be a little lighter in color than the outside. Apply oil stains, 
like water stains, quickly. If the end absorbs too much color, 
thin with turpentine, and do end-grain first. If part of the 
surface is sapwood, sponge the sapwood with turpentine or 
naphtha before staining. Do not sand after an oil stain. Oil 
stains should be thoroughly protected by shellac, which can 
be followed by varnish, for the color to last. 

402. Alcohol stains can be applied quickly, but are more 
expensive, less simple to apply, and should be thoroughly 
protected by shellac, which can be followed by varnish, to 
preserve the color. 

403. Varnish stains are easily applied, but are not desirable 
for nice work. The color does not penetrate the wood, which 
is easily exposed by bruising, and the grain is obscured. 

404. Stains due to chemical action. The rich darkening 
and mellowing given by age can be easily secured with some 
woods. Articles made of oak or chestnut and cherry can be 
kept for some time in a tight box or closet with a dish of strong 
ammonia on the floor (‘‘fuming’’),’ or can be washed with 


* Oak and other woods contain tannic acid in varying quantities, there- 
fore it is well (for this is a chemical process) to apply a solution of tannic 
acid and pyrogallic acid before fuming. Schmidt recommends using “‘one- 
half ounce of the former, and one ounce of the latter to the gallon of water.” 
After fuming, apply hot linseed oil. Rub in thoroughly and repeat the 
process. After some time, give a thin coat of shellac, and finally wax, or 
varnish, can be used. 


Some Common Operations 187 


ammonia, The washing raises the grain, which must be rubbed 
down with fine sandpaper. Mahogany and cherry can be 
washed with lime water (solution of common slaked lime in 
water), or with a solution of bichromate of potash in water. 
When dry thoroughly clean the work in all corners or crevices, 
and sand carefully. Bichromate of potash gives oak a brown 
color. Such methods do not obscure but bring out the beauty 
of the wood.* 

Dipping. Small articles can well be stained by dipping (416). 

405. Filling. If the wood be coarse-grained, like oak, 
chestnut, ash, mahogany, walnut, etc., brush it thoroughly 
and fill the pores with a paste filler of suitable color and of 
the consistency of varnish. Keep well stirred and rub thor- 
oughly, with the grain, into the wood with a stiff brush. After 
it begins to set, rub off the surplus thoroughly across the grain 
with burlap or some coarse material. Let dry for two or three 
days. Clean all interior corners and angles thoroughly with a 


t The variety of stains is almost endless. For a common grade of work, 
asphaltum varnish, thinned with a large proportion of turpentine, gives 
varying shades of brown according to the proportion of turpentine. Adda 
very little linseed oil. Extract of logwood in hot water also gives a 
brown color. Walnut crystals can be used for cheap work. Schmidt recom- 
mends using about six ounces of crystals to one gallon of hot water, and if 
the wood be hard, adding an ounce of sal-soda. In case of dipping, the tank 
must be kept filled with stain of uniform strength. 

For black, the simplest way, for common work, is to use paint, ivory 
black, or bone black thinned with turpentine. Even lampblack can be 
used. Black shellac (colored with lampblack) can be applied, but this 
does not penetrate the wood, however, and bruising will show the lighter 
color underneath. For nice work ebonizing is the proper way. Cherry, 
birch, maple, beech, apple, pear, ebonize well. Apply solution of logwood, 
and wash with vinegar in which iron filings have been soaked, or a black 
analine dye can be used. Schmidt recommends: ‘Boil one pound of log- 
wood chips in two quarts of water, or one ounce of logwood extract (solid). 
Brush the hot solution over the work, giving it a second coat when dry. 
Allow this to stand at least twenty-four hours, and then coat with a solu- 
tion of one ounce of green copperas (sulphate of iron) to one quart of water. 
Let this dry in a warm, well-lighted place.’ 


188 Woodworking 


pointed stick or some tool without rubbing through the edges. 
When hard, sand the surface carefully. Liquid fillers can be 
used, but are not so good as paste, as a rule. To prevent 
end-grain being too dark, thin filler and fill end grain first. 
Close-grained woods like pine, whitewood, basswood, poplar, 
maple, beech, birch, sycamore, cypress, cherry, gumwood, 
etc., do not require filling. If one should be needed, shellac is 
good. You can buy prepared fillers of the desired color. 
Those made with silex are the best. To thin fillers add turpen- 
tine or naphtha a little at a time, stirring thoroughly. 

406. Shellac (solution of lac in alcohol) is probably the 
best varnish’ for the beginner to use at first, for furniture and 
other indoor work. There is no nicer finish, unless perhaps 
wax. Water is injurious to it. Keep shellac in glass or earthen- 
ware. Where the orange color is unsuitable, white shellac 
can be used. For black work, black shellac. Shellac must not 
be used over varnish for the alcohol will injure the varnish, — 
but varnish can usually be used over shellac. Shellac should 
be quite thin and flow freely from the brush. See general 
directions (397-8). Use a flat bristle brush. ‘Three or four 
thin coats are better than two thick ones. Thin with alcohol 
only. Denatured or wood alcohol can be used if necessary. 
Shellac dries very quickly because it is cut with alcohol, 
therefore work rapidly and carefully without going back over 
the work to patch spots. Lay it on as well as you can and 
leave it. Giveit at least twenty-four hours to harden. Lightly 
skim over the surface with fine sandpaper. Curled hair can 
be used. When rubbing down with sandpaper, use the paper 
with the fingers because you are smoothing the finish and not 
flattening the surface. For fine work split the sandpaper? by 


t Shellac is, strictly speaking, a kind of varnish, but it is so different 
from many kinds of varnish in common use, that it is usually spoken of as 
shellac, in distinction from what is popularly known as varnish. 

2 Special finishing sandpaper for rubbing shellac and varnish is very fine 
grained. Some is double surfaced, ready to be split. o00000 garnet paper 


Some Common Operations 189 


removing the outer layer of paper so that it will be more 
flexible, and dampen with oil. Wipe thoroughly, apply a second 
coat, and so on. When you have a sufficient body of shellac 
on the wood, rub it down with a bit of felt on which is a little 
powdered pumice wet with thin oil. Rub with the grain evenly 
and carefully lest you rub through the finish. Wipe off with 
a soft cloth. Use a toothbrush or something similar for rub- 
bing carved work, or places where a felt pad cannot be used.! 

407. Varnish. See general directions (397-8). Varnish 
dries more slowly than shellac, so more time can be taken. 
Keep the room warm and free from dust, because varnish will 
be spoiled by a shower of dust long after shellac would be 
dry, and have the varnish slightly warm. There are many 
kinds of varnish, for many purposes. Only the best grades are 
satisfactory for good work. For work to be exposed to the 
weather or to water, use spar varnish. A coat of thin shellac 
is often used before varnishing. The temperature of the room, 
of the wood, and of the varnish, should be not less than 70° 
for the best results. 

To thin varnish, mix separately a small quantity of varnish 
with twice the quantity of turpentine. Leave for a day. Add 
to the main body of varnish until it works freely. 


is good for fine work. The flexibility of the split paper prevents glazing and 
scratching. 

t French polishing. A wad or pad of woollen cloth or cotton wool is made, 
and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol may be neces- 
sary. This wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean linen, a drop of 
linseed oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from sticking, and the 
pad quickly passed over the surface with a circular motion, or with longer 
strokes in the form of the figure 8. After doing this for a while a very thin 
coat will have been deposited. This is allowed to dry for a short time, 
when the process is repeated, until a sufficient body of the polished finish 
has been formed. The details vary with different finishers. It is quite 
easy to polish a small flat surface, the arm of a chair, for example; but it is 
hard for a beginner successfully to polish a large flat surface, like a table- 
top. A coating of shellac is usually put on in the ordinary way first and 
skimmed over with sandpaper, to save labor in the polishing process. 


190 Woodworking 


Use a flat brush (fitch, or badger, is good) fairly full of 
varnish. Apply freely and quickly, without working over the 
surface. If too much varnish collects at any spot, wipe most 
of the varnish from the brush, and take up the surplus with a 
light stroke. For rubbing, water or oil can be used. With 
water, wet a felt pad and dip in pumice or tripoli (or sprinkle 
the powder on the surface). After rubbing, sponge surface 
with water and wipe clean. With oil, use pad or felt, burlap, 
or webbing, pumice, and rubbing oil. Wipe clean. Rotten 
stone with oil gives a soft polish. You may rub down or polish 
the extreme ends of large surfaces across the grain first, then 
lengthways. Clean corners carefully. Use a toothbrush, or 
something similar, for rubbing and cleaning carved work, or 
where a pad cannot be used. The palm of the hand is often 
used for the final smoothing, after rubbing down. The general 
principle of rubbing is that, as the surface becomes finer, 
finer materials should be used. 

Cork linoleum and rubber make good facings for blocks 
for sanding or rubbing. Thick felt also makes a soft block. 
For a fine dull-rubbed finish for nice work, use.a light-bodied 
transparent varnish. 

Cover varnish pot when through, and keep brush hanging 
in varnish or in turpentine so as to cover the hairs, but with- 
out resting on the end; or wash brushes thoroughly in tur- 
pentine (gasoline can be used), or with soap and water, rinse 
and dry. Vessels can be bought arranged to protect both 
varnish and brush. Keep brush and varnish dish clean, so 
that there will be no particles of hardened varnish to be 
deposited on the surface, which is a frequent cause of poor 
work. 

Dipping. Small articles of some kinds, toys for example, 
can often be dipped to advantage. See 416. 

The air-brush (spraying-machine) is the last word in finish- 
ing. It applies the coating not only much more rapidly, but 
more uniformly, more smoothly, and more cheaply than hand 


Some Common Operations 191 


brushing. These machines should be used according to the 
directions for each machine. Rubbing machines are also 
efficient. 

408. Wax gives a beautiful finish, soft and lustrous. It 
shows spots, however, and for articles in constant use requires 
renewing often, but this is easily done. The surface must be 
very smooth and free from defects. A thin coat of shellac, 
lightly rubbed down with fine sandpaper, makes a good under 
coat on new work, before applying the wax. Use prepared 
wax. Put a little on a piece of doubled cheesecloth. Fold 
like a bag and pass over the surface to distribute the wax 
evenly. Leave for a short time and then polish with brush, 
soft cloth, felt, or carpeting; but follow the directions on the 
can. Colored wax can be used. To polish floors, rub with a 
weighted brush or a heavy weight covered with carpeting, 
pushed back and forth like a carpet-sweeper. Wax can be 
colored with aniline colors soluble in oil, which can be bought 
of the dealers, dissolved in heated turpentine and mixed with 
the wax by melting the latter. 

409. Oil finish. An excellent soft finish for some close- 
grained hard woods, but involves more repeated rubbings than 
most people are willing to give. Unless thoroughly done, it 
is apt to be greasy. It darkens the wood in all cases. Use 
linseed oil thinned with turpentine and rub repeatedly at 
intervals until a good finish is obtained—a good finish for 
kitchen-floors, if renewed at intervals. Paraffine melted into 
the wood with a hot iron is used for kitchen floors, but involves 
more work to apply. 

A good polish for small objects like handles, etc., is made 
by adding a small proportion of boiled linseed oil, perhaps 1 
part to 5 or 6 of shellac. Shake, rub on, and polish with cloth. 

410. Woodlacquer.* Towhat extent wood lacquer, which 
may be called, roughly speaking, wood fibre (nitro-cotton or 


*Modern wood lacquer should not be confused with the well-known 
lacquers used by the Orientals. Professor Morse, speaking of the best 


192 Woodworking 


cellulose) in liquid form, may take the place of varnish cannot 
be foretold, but its use is increasing to a marked degree. 
Among the advantages claimed for it are durability, hardness, 
flexibility; resistance to heat, cold, and moisture (thus hinder- 
ing warping, expansion, and contraction), to scratching, 
cracking, etc. Also, repeated coats can be applied in the same 
day, at intervals of two hours. Rubbing can be done after 
twenty-four hours or even less. But little rubbing is required. 

The wood is prepared, stained (water stain is prefer- 
able), filled (a silex filler is best), as for a shellac or varnish 
finish. The wood lacquer is then applied with a sprayer. 
Articles of suitable size and shape (toys, for example) can be 
dipped. Wax can be used for a final finish. You are advised 
to procure some wood lacquer and experiment with it, following 
the directions of the manufacturer, and you will be likely to 
find many uses for it. It can be thinned and applied with a 
brush, but the best results have been obtained with sprayers 
or by dipping. 

Reference for finishing: Problems of the Finishing Room, 
WALTER K. SCHMIDT. 

Summary. Seasoned wood, clean, smooth, dry, and free 
from dust. Remedy defects. Room and wood warm and free 
from dust. Water stains, and those due to chemical action, 
usually best. Silex filler for coarse-grained woods, well worked 
in and thoroughly cleaned off. Thin coats of shellac or varnish 
better than thick ones. Apply quickly and evenly. Allow 
abundant time for hardening. Rub down carefully with sand- 
paper or pad and pumice, lubricated,etc. Rub waxthoroughly. 
Wood lacquer durable. See also 397, 308. 

411. Refinishing old work. If the surface is in bad condi- 
tion, scrape to the wood with cabinet-scraper, and sand thor- 
oughly. A chisel, or a plane-bit, used as a scraper, often helps 





lacquer work of the Japanese, tells of an article being given one coat a year, 
the finest work having twenty-one coats, and the artist rowing out to sea 
for miles each time to make sure that all dust is avoided. 


Some Common Operations 193 


in awkward spots. Varnish remover can be used according to 
the directions on the can, but all traces of it must be removed 
by washing or with scraper and sandpaper, lest the finish be 
ruined. If removal of the old finish is not necessary, clean 
with soapsuds, and rub with fine sandpaper, split, using oil. 
Pumice can be used. Use a stiff brush (nail- or tooth-brush) 
for cleaning out angles and carved work. Finally, thoroughly 
clean and wipe the surface, and apply the desired finishing 
coats. 

Cleaning and brightening old finish. Mix equal parts of 
linseed oil and turpentine with a very small quantity of Japan. 
Rub well with flannel and rub off. This makes scratches less 
conspicuous and freshens the finish for some time, but is not a 
substitute for refinishing a badly defaced surface. Wax, 
rubbed to a polish, is often a good reviver. 

412. Painting. See also 397-8. Be sure that the wood is 
both seasoned and dry, else it may decay, or the paint peel, 
or both. Use only the best grade of paint for good work. 
Give knots, or streaks of resinous matter, a coat of shellac, 
before painting, to ‘“‘kill’”’ them and prevent colored spots 
showing later. Remove grease with benzine. Also remove all 
dirt and dust. It is a bad plan to paint in damp or frosty 
weather. On new work the first coat (which is the most impor- 
tant) should be thin, for the oil in the paint will be drawn into 
the wood quickly. 

If the paint be thick, the oil will soak into the wood leaving 
the pigment on the outside too dry. Work the first coat well 
into the wood. Take but little paint on the brush. Stretch a 
wire across the top of the paint pot to draw the brush over to 
remove any excess of paint. Begin at the highest point, or 
the end farthest from you, to prevent dripping on the freshly 
painted surface. Draw the brush back and forth to spread the 
paint as evenly as possible, and work it in. Paint with the 
grain of the wood or the long way of the work. Use a large 
brush for large surfaces; finishing corners, mouldings, and 


194 Woodworking 


edges with a small brush. Try not to leave any part of a 
surface until another time, or it will be likely to show a “‘lap.”’ 
Stop where there is some natural line or break in the work. 

Paint door and panel work in the order shown in 397, foot- 
note. In work to be exposed to the weather, paint joints, 
tenons, mortises, shoulders, etc., with white lead, before put- 
ting the work together, for the wood quickly decays if the 
dampness can enter the joints. Old weather beaten wood and 
a rough surface take more paint than new wood and a smooth 
surface. Thin paint more in cold weather than in warm. Warm 
canvas before painting and when it is laid for a floor, roof or 
deck, lay it in a heavy coating of white lead. 

Cracking, checking, and peeling are often due to not allowing 
time enough for drying between coats. Give the first coat 
plenty of time to dry,—several days at least, a week is better. 
Then putty the holes and cracks. Never use putty before the 
first coat is hard, for the pores of the wood will absorb the oil 
from the putty and leave it dry and crumbly. 

Many experienced painters consider it better to mix white 
lead and linseed oil, with whatever coloring may be required, 
than to use ready-mixed paints, but the latter are commonly 
used for convenience and to save time. Follow the directions 
on the can. Thin paint with linseed oil or turpentine. An 
excess of turpentine injures the durability. Use oil only, or 
chiefly, in thinning for outside work. In some cases for some 
woods (as cypress, hemlock, hard pine, and other hard resinous 
woods) turpentine is used for outside work. Turpentine 
causes the paint to work freely and smoothly from the brush 
and gives the soft, ‘‘flat’’ appearance often desired in inside 
work. Shiny inside paint, while often in vogue, is more liable 
to check and crack than a flat or dull finish. Use very little 
dryer, and add it only to the quantity to be used at the time. 
Zinc paints are usually considered inferior to lead, but the 
addition of a proper proportion of zinc oxide to lead paint is 
thought best by many. 


Some Common Operations 195 


To mix paint, stir very thoroughly. In mixing or in stirring 
prepared paint, stir the lead or the heavy deposit in the can 
very thoroughly with but little of the oil. Then add any color 
required for tinting and finally a little dryer, if needed, then 
the rest of the oil, and sometimes a little turpentine. Pour 
back and forth from one can to another. It is improved by 
straining through cheesecloth. 

Red lead is good to paint iron. Black Japan varnish and 
asphalt are also used. The iron must be dry and it is better 
to have it warm. 

_ 413. When leaving paint, pour a thin layer of linseed oil 

over the top to exclude the air. Clean brushes with kerosene 
or turpentine. For fine inside work sandpaper between coats. 
Keep a rag with you while painting to wipe up any spattering 
at once. Old paint, if loose, can be scraped with knife or 
scraper, or sandpapered off and steel wool can be used; but 
if in very bad condition, is usually burned off with a blow- 
torch. In repainting old work, first touch-up the worn and 
bare spots, before painting the whole surface. Flat brushes are 
better than round except for coarse work. 

Brushes which are to be laid away should be washed in 
strong soapsuds, rinsed, and smoothed into shape. Tempo- 
rarily, they can be kept in oil or even water. Clean hands with 
kerosene, paint oil, or lubricating oil. Fine softwood sawdust 
makes an excellent towel. 

414. Enameling. For the best results apply successive 
coats of paint of the desired color, carefully rubbing down each 
coat with fine sandpaper or even pumice and water until a 
sufficient body of rubbed down paint has been formed on 
the surface. Then finish with enamel, applying it like 
paint or varnish, as already shown. For very nice work 
many under coats are applied to give a solid and durable 
body. 

415. Water colors. Toys and the like are often colored 
with water colors, of which various kinds are for sale. These 


196 Woodworking 


should have one or more coats of varnish or shellac, also, over 
the water colors, for protection. , 

416. Spraying and dipping. Much painting is now done 
by spraying the paint on the surface with spraying machines, 
and by dipping in vats of paint. Dipping is very convenient 
for small articles. Very small objects can be held in a wire 
basket while being slowly dipped. Larger articles can be held 
by wire. All can be drained upon a mesh or wire screen, with 
a trough beneath to return to the dipping vat whatever paint 
may drip from the articles. The proper consistency of the 
paint for dipping can be learned by experiment. 

417. Putty. Commonly made of whiting and linseed oil. 
A large proportion of white lead worked in makes it much 
better. To color putty, stir the coloring matter in a little oil 
and then knead it into the putty until the whole is colored. 
Keep putty under water, not in paper. If too soft wrap in 
paper and the surplus oil will soon be absorbed. Use a square 
bladed putty knife for flat surfaces. For nice work, not 
painted, see 395, 569. 


FLASHING 


418. Flashing. Protect the tops of window and door- 
casings, and similar joints, by strips of sheet lead, slipped up 
under the clapboards, or the shingles, to cover the crack where 
the window casing joins the side of the building. ‘This will shed 
the water. Tonguing and grooving can be used. Flashin a 
similar way where roofs or other attachmentsjoin a building. To 
flash a brick chimney, separate pieces of lead areinserted in joints 
of the brickwork so as to overlap each other as shown above. 
The pieces of lead are overlapped by the rows of shingles. 
Lay the flashing between the rows of shingles so that the water 
will run off on the outside without getting under the shingles. 

Flash valleys, where two roofs meet, on the same principle; 
or with one strip of metal running the whole length of the 
valley, in which case the shingling does not begin for some 


Some Common Operations 197 


distance from the angle of the valley, the metal acting as a 
gutter. Zinc and even tin can be used for flashing, but are 






OSS 
= uM SS ~ 





inferior to lead. Copper is good but expensive. In snowy 
climates the eaves also are often covered with metal to prevent 
' snow water “‘ backing up”’ from alternate thawing and freezing. 
The lower row of shingles begins just below the upper edge of 
the metal. 





419. Showing flashing for camp, or temporary structure, 
slipped under shingles at the top and sides and over them at 
the bottom, to shed the water. Smoke pipe and flashing are 
soldered together. For board or fabric-covered roof, the 


198 Woodworking 


flashing can be slipped under the saddle board at the top, 
or under a strip of the fabric. 


FLOOR-LAYING 


420. Floor-laying. Hardwood floor-laying is a trade in 
itself, but the amateur can lay a good floor with care. The 
under floor of soft wood must be even, without high or low 
spots, and be firmly nailed. It is best laid diagonally or at 
right angles to the upper hard wood floor. An old floor often 
has to be leveled with an adze or other tools, or have the low 
spots built up or ‘“‘shimmed.’’ Sometimes furring-strips are 
laid and carefully lined up to give an even and springy surface. 
Lay sheathing-paper over the lower floor if it is cold under- 
neath. Hard wood floorboards are matched (tongued and 
grooved) on the edges and ends, are hollowed or ‘‘backed-out”’ 
on the under sides, and holes are bored for the nails. They are 
slightly narrower on the under side than on the upper, and the 
ends are slightly undercut (535-6), to ensure tight joints on the 
upper side. Lay the upper floor lengthways of the room when 
the construction and the arrangement of the building will allow. 
Line the first row as straight as you can, but do not nail it 
against the wall. Nail at the edge near the wall, and cover 
the nailing with quarter-round moulding. 





421. Draw each row tightly against the one last laid with a 
chisel, as shown, and hold in position while nailing. Use a 


Some Common Operations 199 


waste piece of flooring for blocking if necessary to pound the 
edge, as shown for sheathing (525). Drive nails at an angle 
of 45° to 55° and about 16” apart, for boards *3/16’’ thick, and 
not nearer than 6” to the ends, unless necessary. Drive the 
first nail or two in each piece slanting toward the end where it 
butts against the piece just laid, to draw the end joint together 
(536). Eight-penny cut flooring nails are excellent (209), 
though steel wire ones are often used. For 3%” flooring 
smaller wire nails are used, about 9”’ apart. 





422. The principle of the toggle-joint used to force a 
crooked piece into place. 





423. Another way to make tight joints. The boards at the 
sides are nailed, and the key-boards (A) placed as shown. 
A plank is laid to extend over the joint, which is closed by 
jumping on the plank. 

424. Have end joints come at different parts of the floor. 
Saw ends as squarely as possible, using try square. <A very 
slight undercutting can be made, but if the floor is to 
have very hard wear, a square joint may be better. A slight 
tap at the other end will close an end joint, when a hard blow 
will cause a recoil. The final smoothing of the floor is now 


200 Woodworking 


done with portable sanding machines. It can be done with 
plane and scraper, but is hard work. With fine-grained wood, 
apply a coat of thin shellac and then wax or varnish. See 
394, etc. With coarse-grained wood like oak, first fill with a 
paste-filler. 

A common fault is to lay boards taken directly from a cool, 
damp storage place. Later the heat shrinks them, leaving 
open joints. The room should be warm, the boards thoroughly 
warm and dry, and should have been kept so for some time 
before laying. Maple, birch, beech, red and white oak, and 
rift (quarter-sawed, 739) hard pine make good floors. Quarter- 
sawed yellow pine, Douglas fir, and other woods are also used. 


GLAZING 


425. Glazing. Old work. ‘Take out sash and place flat if 
possible. Clean off old putty with chisel, knife, or hot iron. 
Spread a thin layer of putty on the rabbet (567), and bed 








the glass on it by pressing gently. Hold glass with glazier’s 
points of zinc, which will not rust, easily driven by sliding a 
chisel sideways over the glass. Apply the putty, and smooth 
it with a square-ended putty-knife, using a drawing-stroke. 
New work. Prime the rabbet with lead paint and let it dry 
before setting the glass, to prevent the oil in the putty being 
absorbed by the wood. 

Common glass can be cut with cheap glass cutters. Use 
a straight-edge, and score the line once carefully, being sure 


Some Common Operations 201 


that the ends are scored. Hold near line, and bend glass a 
little until it breaks. If it does not break, rap it slightly, at 
the end near you, on the smooth side under the scratch, and try 
again. Trim off any projecting places with the slots on the 
cutter. 

Common glass is single or double-thick. Plate glass is 
thick, ground flat, and polished.' 


GLUING 


426. Gluing. Glue seasoned wood only. Also, use pieces 
of about the same degree of dryness, or one piece will change 
its size or shape more than the other (74'7), which will put too 
much strain on the glue. For example, it is unwise to glue 
together a piece taken directly from a hot, dry storage place or 
a drying-kiln and a piece from a damp shed, even though the 
latter may have been very dry once. In such a case keep 
both pieces for a while in a warm room before gluing. Also, 
do not glue together quarter-sawed (739) and plain sawed (736) 
stock, for the latter shrinks, swells, and curls more than the 
former, which puts an unequal strain on the joint. Fine- 
grained and coarse-grained pieces do not glue together so well 
as those of similar fibre. Also, join heartwood to heartwood 
and sapwood to sapwood when possible. Have the grain of 
the pieces run in the same direction when you can. 





t The rabbet of a mirror frame must be colored black—also of any frame 
to hold plate glass—on account of the reflection. A small piece of plate 
glass can be held in place by strips, but a large plate, as for a mirror, should 
be fastened by little pieces of soft pine, one or two inches long, bevelled on 
one side. These short pieces, glued on one side, and lightly pressed into the 
crack around the glass, wedge the glass in place securely and, owing to the 
softness of the wood, not too rigidly. 


202 Woodworking 


427. A weak joint. The surfaces only touch in spots, and 
elsewhere are held together merely by a thick layer of glue, 





like marmalade in a cracker sandwich, and will probably come 
apart. See Plane (132, etc., 146). 


428. A good joint. The surfaces must touch everywhere, 
because the pieces are held together by the glue which pene- 
trates the wood on each side of the joint, not by a thick layer 
of glue between the pieces. 

429. Common glue is made from refuse animal matter,— 
some glue from fishes. It comes in flakes, or ground, to be 
dissolved and used hot. Also in liquid form to be used cold. 
Hot glue. ‘This is the best if you can keep it hot, and the 
wood and the room warm, while gluing. Buy the best grade 
for good work.’ Break in small pieces and soak in cold water 
for six or eight hours. Then place in the inner vessel of a glue 
pot, which must also have an outer vessel for water, like a 
kitchen double-boiler, to prevent overheating the glue. Put 
water in the outer vessel, heat until the glue melts, and keep 
the temperature at that point so long as you are using the glue. 
If the glue cannot be soaked, start with cold water and raise 


* Good flake glue has a clear appearance, is tough, bends, does not break 
easily, and breaks evenly without splintering. If the smell is at all offen- 
sive, throw the glue away. Good glue will absorb much water without 
dissolving, while poor glue will dissolve. To test the strength, glue end 
wood under pressure after sizing (433), leave until hard, and see how much 
force is required to break the joint. Ground glue is convenient and saves 
time, as it can be prepared in half-an-hour, but unless you buy from a re- 
liable maker or dealer it may be safer to use the flake glue, because adulter- 
ation of ground glue is less easily detected when buying. 


Some Common Operations 203 


the temperature gradually. Overheating is very injurious. 
The glue should have the consistency of thin cream. It 
should drip from the brush. The entire quantity of water 
should be put with the glue before melting and not added 
afterward, for the best work. A thin slip of wood is sometimes 
better than a brush for applying glue. As kinds of glue vary, 
it is impossible to state the exact quantity of water which 
should be used with every kind of glue in the market. If no 
quantity is specified, try a small experimental melting, adding 
water if necessary, until you find the right quantity, for future 
use. Glue loses strength each time it is re-melted, so for 
important work make it fresh, and keep the glue-pot 
clean. 

430. Toothing, that 1s, scratching the surfaces to be glued 
with a toothing-plane (134, footnote), or otherwise, has been 
practised for ages, and has been supposed to give the glue a 
stronger hold on the wood than if the surfaces are smooth, on a 
similar principle to that used in lathing and plastering walls; 
but the Forest Products Laboratory reports that there would 
seem to be no advantage in tooth-planing wood for gluing 
purposes. See (580). 

431. Glue first and plane afterwards, if possible. For 
example, in case of a table-top, fit the edges of the rough 
boards, and glue them together. After drying plane the sur- 
faces as one piece to the required thickness. Not only must the 
surfaces fit together, but they must be pressed together so hard 
that the glue will be forced into the wood, and kept pressed 
until the glue has set thoroughly. Except with very small 
pieces, the more pressure you can apply with clamps, hand- 
screws, or otherwise, the better the glue will hold. Fit clamps 
and hand-screws (228, etc.) before beginning to glue, and place 
them where you can reach them at once, because glue cools 
so quickly that no time can be wasted in adjusting clamps. 
Be sure that the glue is hot, the wood warm, and the room 
warm and free from drafts. Then work as fast as youcan. If 


204 Woodworking 


the glue cools before the pieces are pressed together, the work 
will be spoiled. With complicated work have someone help 
you. With very small pieces excessive pressure should not be ° 
applied. Little pieces of soft wood can often be rubbed into 
place and pressed with the hand for a few moments, until the 
glue has set enough to remove the pressure, but such joints 
should not be disturbed for several hours. There is usually 
no danger of too much pressure; but it sometimes happens, 
making a “‘starved”’ joint, due to forcing the glue out of the 
joint too much without giving it a chance to penetrate the 
wood. With soft wood, clamps can often be removed in 
twelve hours, but with hard wood, or large surfaces, it is safer 
to wait a day or two. Remove the surplus glue which oozes 
from the joint before it becomes thoroughly hard, but not until 
after it has set, unless necessary. Soft wood glues more readily 
than hard. Large blocks and pieces glued flatways require 
more time than edges and thin stuff. If you cannot use clamps 
for any reason, rub one piece back and forth upon the other a 
few times, until the glue begins to stick,—an old way to glue 
edges. 

432. The porosity of the wood must be considered in 
determining the thickness of the glue.* 

433. To glue end-grain, first ‘“‘size” the ends with thin 
glue, leave to harden, scrape, and then glue in the usual way. 
The sizing prevents the glue being soaked up too fast by the 
open pores of the end-wood, but gluing end-grain must be 
skillfully done to hold. 


t “Hard, close-grained woods, such as maple and birch, do not require 
as heavy a solution as basswood or poplar, which, while close-grained, are 
soft and absorbent and will imbibe a lot of glue; nor yet as heavy a solution 
as oak, which, while hard, is very porous and will absorb a large quantity 
also.”’ Bezeau. 

When you have to glue together pieces requiring different thicknesses of 
glue, you can use thick glue and roughen the surface of the part requiring 
thin glue; or, in some cases, you can use thin glue and size the part requiring 
thick glue. 


Some Common Operations 205 


RNAI PAF 


434. The water in the glue swells the wood near the joint. 
Wait for this water to evaporate before planing the surface. 
If you plane before the wet wood has shrunk back to its 
original shape, there will be a sunken place at the joint when 
the water has dried out. 

435. To prevent glue sticking to any part, rub wax, paraf- 
fine, soap, or tallow on that part. Sometimes paper is placed 
between parts to prevent their sticking together. 





436. Gluing plain-sawed boards together. ‘‘If the glue is 
of a good quality, that is, as strong as the wood, it is better 
that the rings should curve in opposite directions, as in Fig. 
4a, for then one piece tends to keep the other straight. If, 
however, the glue is of a poor quality or improperly applied, 
the joints are less apt to open if the pieces are glued together 
with the rings curving in the same direction, as in Fig. 4b.’’— 
Forest Products Laboratory, KOEHLER. 

Summary. Essentials for good gluing with hot glue. 
Cleanliness. Seasoned wood, all the pieces to have similar 
characteristics, and to have been kept for some time in a 
warm, dry atmosphere. Warm room, free from drafts, warm 
wood. Tightly fitting surfaces. Have clamps fitted and 
ready. Use best grade of glue in clean glue pot. Melt only 
what you will use at one time (in one day). Keep temperature 


206 Woodworking 


of glue down to the melting point (about 140° to 150°). Work 
quickly. Clamp surfaces tightly together until glue is hard. 
Do not disturb for a day or two. 

437. Liquid glue, often called cold glue, is convenient and 
easy to use, but is not considered so reliable as hot glue. It 
does very well for much common work, and is better than hot 
glue used under unfavorable conditions. Cold glue sets 
slowly, so you do not have to hurry. In fact it is common to 
wait a little while after applying the glue before putting the 
parts together. For the same reason, keep the parts clamped 
together a good deal longer than with hot glue. You cannot 
hold small pieces in place with the hand, for it would take too 
long. Under damp, cold conditions cold glue may not harden 
for several days. Cold glue can be thinned with vinegar or 
acetic acid, or pour out what you wish to use at once and thin 
with water. 

438. Water-resistant glues are made from blood albumin 
and from casein which is obtained from milk. These have 
been successfully used for airplanes, etc. Casein glue sets 
quickly. In tests at the Forest Products Laboratory casein 
glue joints in spruce were as strong as the wood in four hours 
and in hard maple in six hours. <A short period of clamping is 
sufficient. As the subject is studied more the use of casein 
glue is likely to increase. You are advised to get some and 
experiment with it, following the directions of the makers. 

439. Building-up articles with a number of smaller pieces 
by the use of glue has been practised in various forms since the 
time of the Egyptians at least. As wood becomes scarcer 
more things are being built up, many from waste scraps. 
For many purposes, as pattern-making, gluing up with selected 
pieces prevents warping, change of dimensions, and checking 
(cracking), which often result from using a large solid block. 
While a well-made glue joint is usually stronger than the wood 
at the time it is made, exposure to moist atmosphere, and 
alternations from moist to dry conditions, are likely, sooner or 


Some Common Operations 207 


later, to weaken joints made with any glue now in use; there- 
fore it is not safe to assume that glue will hold permanently. 
Much glued work comes apart from putting the parts together 
without regard to the way wood swells and shrinks, warps 
and winds, from heat and cold, dampness and dryness. 

Reference: Modern Glues and Glue-Handling. 'TEESDALE 
and BEZEAU. 

440. Gluepot. This should have an inner and outer vessel 
like a kitchen double-boiler, the outer vessel containing water. 
Steam-heated and electric glue pots are in common use, but 
water in the outer vessel is a sure safeguard against burning 
the glue. 


GROOVING 


441. Grooving is best done by machine (609, etc.). To cut 
grooves by hand use a grooving plane (the plow), or the groove 
can be marked with a knife, the sides cut with saw or chisel, 
and the wood between pared away with the chisel (83, etc.). 
A piece of wood can be clamped beside the line as a guide 
(463-4, 86). The router can be used (134, footnote). A 
groove cut across the grain is called a dado (463), and can be 
cut with a dado plane. 


HINGE-FITTING 


442. Hinge-fitting. There are many kinds of hinges,— 
butt, strap, T, chest, table, double-action screen, invisible, etc. 


Door hinges have either riveted pins or loose pins. See 
Door-hinging (382). Common hinges may be as wide as the 


208 Woodworking 


thickness of the wood or less, but for doors and chests they 
should cover not less than two-thirds of the thickness of the 
wood. 

In the case of a box, for example, place the lid in position 
(shut), and mark with a knife from each hinge, on both box 
and cover at the same time, the points for the recesses for the 
hinges,—usually, for a good-sized box, about twice the length 
of the hinge from each end. Remove the lid, and with knife or 
square and gauge mark on box and lid the recesses into which 
the hinge is to fit, so that the centre of the pin of the hinge will 
be in line with the back of the box, or sometimes a little out- 
side, as shown. 





443. Setting gauge. To set for the width to be cut, place 
point of the spur at the centre of the pin of the hinge. To set 
for the depth, close the hinge until the leaves (flaps) are 


Some Common Operations 209 


parallel, and set the spur at the middle of the space. <A butt: 
gauge is made for fitting hinges. 





444. Scoring with chisel before paring away the wood. 
These cross-cuts break up the grain and make it easier to trim 
to the line, or notches can be cut at the ends and the rest 
pared away. Bore with brad-awl, drill, or bit, for the screws. 
Hold the hinges in place with two or three screws in each, and 
see whether the lid opens and shuts properly. If it does not, it 
is easier to make alterations before all the screws have been 
inserted. The position of the hinge can be changed a trifle, as 
it is screwed in place, by boring the screw holes nearer either 
edge of the hinge. Strap or surface hinges, T hinges, or the 
like, are placed so that the centre of the pin is opposite the 
crack, and then screwed in place. 


INLAYING 


445. Inlaying. The pieces of thin wood or veneer (580) 
to be inlaid are cut out, slightly undercut, placed on the sur- 
face to be inlaid, marked around, and recesses cut out to fit. 
The edges are slightly beveled.. The recess, which should 
not be quite so deep as the thickness of the inlay, can be 
cut out with special cutters, chisels, router, blind-nailing tool 


210 Woodworking 


(212), carving tools, or even a knife. If curved, the inlays can 
be sawed with scroll saw or coping saw (125, 127). Chalk can 
be rubbed over the surface before marking, to make the outline 
for the recesses distinct. In cutting the angles, keep them 
sharp by cutting away from them, not toward them. Parallel 
lines can often be marked and cut with a double gauge. Such 
gauges should have a knife-edged spur or cutter with the verti- 
cal side toward the line. To glue the inlay in place, hot glue 
should be used, the inlay pressed hard into place, and clamped 
or rubbed with the head of a hammer. It is best to use a caul 
(a form made to fit the surface), and clamp securely, if possible. 
After the glue has hardened and dried out, trim the surface 
even with plane, and sand with block. A great variety of 
bands for inlaying, made of different kinds of wood, can be 
bought ready to set into grooves. Apply glue, press one end of 
the band into the groove, and set the rest into place by pressing 
it in with the hammer head, which you can push along the 
length of the band. If possible, cover with paper and keep 
pressed with caul and clamp. 


446. A cutter or scratch stock can easily be made, similar 
to a bead cutter (156). 

If both pieces are thin and can be sawed, place the piece 
to be inlaid on top, and saw both together. The saw-table 
should be very slightly tilted; or, if a hand jig-saw be 
used, it should be tipped outward at the top, so that the upper 
piece will fit tightly in the opening made in the lower one, thus 
avoiding the loose fitting which would result if the saw were 
held vertically. Much inlaying is easily done in this way with 
veneer or very thin stock, the inlaid piece being first glued in 
place, and then the whole glued upon the surface of the work 
(see Veneering, 580). 


Some Common Operations 211 


JOINTS 


447. Joints, Splices, etc. Making good joints is a matter 
of accuracy,—accurate laying out and accurate cutting. 
Good joints are an essential part of good work. When you 
acquire skill enough to make accurate, neat, and strong 
joints, you will find little trouble with the rest of your work. 
Plan joints and splices so as to reduce the strength as little as 
possible. The joint best for one strain is often not the best for 
another. Many of the joints shown are included for reference, 
for making by machine, and to give an understanding of the 
principles. Most of these joints are now made by machinery 
when possible. 

For most good work the stock should be got out of the right 
thickness and width, and be squared, and in some cases 
smoothed, before laying out and cutting joints; but there are 
some exceptions to this rule, as you will discover. Test joints 
by eye and with square or other tools to see that the angles are 
right, as already shown. Often this means testing in two 
directions. Also, in many cases the flat sides or surfaces must 
be tested. For example, not only must the corners of a picture 
frame be square and the joints good, but the frame as a whole 
must be flat and not winding. The posts and studding of a 
building must not only be square with the sills, but the whole 
side of the building must be vertical, and in line lengthways. 





448. Buttjoint. Used fora great variety of common work, 
as boxes, etc. Usually nailed. Screws can be used in such 
cases as boxes, but do not hold strongly in end-grain (224). 
Butt joints for timbers are usually fastened by ‘‘toeing” the 
nails, that is, slanting them as shown (215). 


212 Woodworking 





449. Butt joint with draw-bolt. Used for benches, frames 
for machines, and heavy work which must be held tightly 
together. The hole shown allows the nut to be put on and 
tightened. This hole can be plugged afterwards with wood 
(177, 186, 569), if desired. A short section of pipe inserted 
to fit the hole gives the nut a stronger bearing. A draw-bolt 
and blind mortise (467) are often combined. 


ae 
a 


450. A butt joint can be strengthened or stiffened by a 
corner-iron, by a wooden corner-block, nailed or screwed or 








glued, or by a brace. Corner-blocks are much used in furni- 
ture and cabinet work. Apply hot glue, rub into place, press 


Some Common Operations 213 


for a moment, and leave until secure. These add much to 
the strength. Larger corner-blocks, angle-blocks, brackets, 





etc., should have the grain run as shown (A), lengthways of the 
long edge. Metal corner-irons and braces are useful. A 
shoulder (A) sometimes strengthens against pressure from 
more than one direction. For butt joints for a packing crate, 


etc., see 342. 
0 CH 
ee en 


451. Doweled butt joint.: The dowels can be wedged 
(507). 





452. Housed joint used for timber work and also for smaller 
constructions. Prevents movement sideways. 


214 Woodworking 





453. Cross-lap or halved joint. Used where two pieces 
cross. For good work, plane and square the edges before lay- 
ing out the joint. 





454. Then place the pieces in position and mark the width 
of the upper one on the lower one with a knife, using the 
square to get the right angle. Square lines down both edges 
of the lower piece (B), and mark the depth of the cut (one-half 
the thickness) on both edges with the gauge. Use gauge from 
face side (top side) only. 





455. Saw down to these gauge-marks, keeping just inside 
the cross lines (108). Pare gradually from each side down to 
the gauge lines with the chisel. Then cut the middle, until 
even with the edges. See Chisel (83, etc.). 


Some Common Operations 215 





456. Fitting second piece (A). Put the pieces together, 
turn them over and mark the second piece (A) like the first. 
Gauge from the face-side. Cut as before and put the two 
pieces together. Both parts can also be laid out and cut in- 
dependently. 








457. End halved-joint. Often used for the sills of build- 
ings and also for small framework. Can be cut entirely with 
the saw, or with saw and chisel. Both sides can be cut at 
once from the same piece by machine (circular saw) with a 
special cutter. 

Sometimes the ends are laid out to project, and are cut off 
after the joint is made. Compare 539. 





458. Middle halved joint. The end piece can be cut 
entirely with saw, or with saw and chisel, and the recess with 
saw and chisel. Sometimes the end is laid out to project and 
be cut off after the joint is made. 


216 Woodworking 





459. Showing end-lap and middle-lap joints beveled. 


Hard to pull apart. 
SS 


460. Dovetailed middle-lap joints. Will not pull apart. 
Useful for a cross member in framework. First cut an end 
half-lap, on one piece as already shown (457). Then lay out 
the dove-tail on this half-lap. Saw the beveled lines first and 
then the shoulders (120). For small work use the back saw. 
Place this dovetailed end in position on the other piece and 
mark the part to be removed. It can be laid out with the bevel 
also. Remove the wood with saw and chisel. 








461. Rabbeted joint. Good for box corners and similar 
work. Best cut by machine. Can be cut with hand saw or 


Some Common Operations 217 


saw and chisel. Conceals part of the end grain. The angle 
can be rounded and also strengthened with a corner-block 
(450). See Rabbeting (567), Box-making (323), Drawer- 
making (383). 





462. Simple joint for corners of screens or other small 
work. Mark with square and cut with saw, or saw and chisel. 
Toe the nails as shown. For screens, doors, and similar work 
add a corner-block with grain running as shown, for strength. 
A corner-iron can be used. 





463. Dado. A groove cut across the grain of one piece 
into which the end of another piece fits. Used for the best 
work, where the inside angle of the joint shows, and for draw- 
ers, steps of step-ladders, shelves, etc. It is best cut by ma- 
chine (609). A dado plane can be used. See Coping (517), 
Grooving, (441), Rabbeting (567). 


ae! 
Grek 

464. To cut a dado with common hand tools, mark it out 

with square and gauge. Saw just inside of the lines A to the 

gauge lines B, and remove the wood with the chisel. If 


necessary, trim the edges with the chisel until the other piece 
fits (86). The sides of the dado can also be laid out by placing 


218 Woodworking 


the parts in position and marking with a knife. Test bottom 
of dado, if cut by hand, with a trysquare. The depth can be 
approximately tested with a scrap of wood into which nails or 
screws have been driven until they project the distance for the 
depth of the dado. In nice work a dado can be very slightly 
deepened in the middle, to ensure tight fitting at the ends.* 


465. Dado and rabbet combined. A good joint for boxes, 
drawers, tanks, etc. Can be nailed and glued. See Box- 
making (323), Drawer-making (383). 


466. A dovetailed dado, slipped in from the edge, is 
stronger than the plain dado, but is harder to make. There 
is a plane for this purpose. 

467. Mortise and Tenon. Mortising. A strong joint. 
The mortise is the rectangular hole in one piece. ‘The tenon is 
the projection at the end of the other piece, shaped to fit the 
mortise. If mortise and tenon go through the wood, it makes 
a through mortise. If they do not go through, it is a blind 
mortise. The former is the stronger, and is used for doors, 

t A strip of wood can be clamped on the line for the side of the dado, asa 
gauge or guide for the saw. A strip is sometimes clamped to the saw itself 
asagauge forthe depth. Saws are made with depth-gauges. Such expedi- 


ents, though useful under some conditions, are hardly the most workman- 
like methods. 


Some Common Operations 219 





sashes, heavy framework, etc., where great strength is required. 
In laying out mortises on different sides of a piece, as a chair 
leg, for example, it is stronger not to have them come opposite 
or very near one another (71).* Both mortise and tenon are 
best cut by machine (714, 716, 616). 


* There is no absolute rule as to the width and length of a mortise and 
tenon in proportion to the width of the pieces. It isa matter of judgment 
and experience, and depends on the kind of work, the strain to be put upon 
the joint, the kind of wood, etc. One-third of the width of the pieces is as 
thin as a tenon is often made, and a Jittle more thickness is often better, 
particularly if the joint is to be wrenched. 





Badly proportioned mortises. In the first case, the tenon is very thin 
and much weaker than the sides of the mortise. In the second, the tenon is 
very thick and the sides of the mortise thin and weak. In the third, the 
mortise is too long, as well as too wide, and is weak. Tenon one-third of 





width. If the tenon is merely to hold the piece in place, this is thick 
enough, as in case of a post resting on a sill, for a wider mortise would 
weaken the sill too much, but in many cases a little greater thickness may 
be better. Six times as long as it is wide is about as long as it is well to 
make a mortise, usually, though there may be exceptions. For stock Upait 
thick, 3 / 3’ is a common width for a mortise. 


220 ~Woodworking 





468. To lay out the mortise. First see that the stocken is 
properly squared up (296). Select and mark a working-face 
or face-side, and working-edge or side. From this face and 
side, or edge, square lines around the piece, the same distance 
apart as the width of the tenon-piece. With the gauge, mark 
the place for the mortise on both sides, gauging from the work- 
ing edge or side. The gauge marks must be the same distance 
apart as the width of the tenon. In case of a blind mortise, 
mark on the working-face only. 





469. Beginning to cut the mortise. Fasten the piece 
securely. The part to be cut is usually shown by cross marks 
at the ends, called ‘‘witness-marks.’’ Take a chisel nearly the 
width of the mortise. The firmer chisel will do for light work, 
but for heavy work use a framing or mortising chisel. Place 


Some Common Operations 221 


it near the middle of the place marked out for the mortise, with 
the basil turned outward, and make a cut. Reverse the tool 
and cut the other way, so as to make a V-shaped hole. Keep 
making cuts toward each end. At the end of each stroke pull 
the chisel handle toward the middle to loosen the chips. Cut 
about half-way through until you reach the ends. Then turn 
the piece over and repeat the process until you cut through. 





470. Showing the V-shaped cut made by the chisel, and 
also the cutting continued to the ends. 





471. Trimming to the line at the ends, after cutting 
through from both sides. Keep the flat side of the chisel out- 


222 Woodworking 


ward or toward the end of the mortise. Finally trim the sides 
of the mortise. 





472. Testing accuracy of the cutting. The square can be 
used, except for very small mortises. 


473. Another way to cut a mortise. Bore holes to remove 
most of the wood with a bit a little narrower than the width 
of the mortise (504). Finish by paring with chisel. Avoid 
driving the chisel lengthways of the grain until the mortise 
is well cleared out or you may split the wood. In many cases 
one hole can be bored and the mortise sawed carefully, just 
within the lines, with the jig saw, and finally trimmed to the 
exact line with the chisel. * 





t Other methods. Place chisel upright at end of mortise, flat side out- 
ward. Makea cut. Pare to this cut as shown. Make another vertical 
cut, pare again, and so on. Do the same at the other end, and on the 
opposite side. Finally trim out the middle. 





Take chisel the width of the mortise. Begin near the middle. Place 
the chisel as shown and make successive cuts, increasing in depth to 


Some Common Operations 223 






Kt TACK AOE 


‘a WORKING EDGE ES WORKING EDGE 


474. To lay out the tenon. Select and mark the working- 
face and edge on the tenon-piece. From these faces square a 
line around the piece at the proper distance from the end. If 
the tenon is to go through the mortise-piece, this distance will 
be the thickness of the mortise-piece, but allow a trifle more for 
the tenon to protrude and be trimmed off afterward. With 
the gauge set as for the mortise, gauge lines for the tenon on 
both sides. Gauge from the working face. Connect these 
lines on the end. By laying out mortise and tenon at the 
same time, the gauge can be used for both without re-setting.* 

475. Tocut the tenon. Saw carefully on the lines Jm and 
rs, and then gh and its opposite. Trim with chisel to fit the 
mortise if necessary. In soft wood the sides of the tenon 
can sometimes be cut best with the chisel. Cut a little 





the end. Then back to the other end. Turn over and repeat. Finally 
trim to line. 


es 


SVE 


A pattern or templet, for laying out mortises, can be made of metal or 
even tough paper or cardboard, but it does not pay to make templets for 
only a few mortises. 


% 


tA pattern or templet, for laying out tenons, can be made of metal or 
tough cardboard. Unnecessary if machinery can be used. A jig can easily 
be contrived to guide the saw when many tenons are to be cut by hand, but 
it does not pay, usually, to make templets or jigs for a small number of ten- 
ons, while a large number should be cut by machine. 


224 Woodworking 





chamfer around theend. Thiscan be trimmed off later. The 
tenon should fit snugly but not drive hard, lest it split out the 
sides of the mortise. For nice work the shoulders of a tenon 
may be very slightly undercut (490) to make a tight joint. 





476. Stub mortise and tenon, where the surfaces of the 
pieces are to be flush. Keeps the tenon piece from moving 
sideways. As this tenon is usually quite short, the mortise 
is marked and cut on one side only. Used in framing con- 
struction and for fine work also. 





477. Very commonly the wood is cut away on three or on 
four sides as shown, (479, 480), to form the tenon, either for 
a through joint orablind one. The laying out and cutting are 
on the same principle as for the joints already shown. Unless 
the mortise comes near the end of the wood, the shoulders at 
the edges are usually quite narrow, but should be wide enough 
to cover the mortise in case of shrinkage of the tenon-piece— 
from */s’’ to 3/,4’’, according to the size of the stock. Saw 
_ lengthways first, then cut shoulders, otherwise you will cut 


Some Common Operations 225 


away some of yourmarks. Also, it is best to cut with the grain 
first (120).’ One shoulder of a tenon is sometimes set back 
farther than the other, as when there is a moulding on the 
inner edge, in case of some doors, panels, etc. 


478. A through tenon is sometimes carried beyond the 
mortise, and the end slightly chamfered. 








479. When the mortise comes near the end of the piece, as 
shown, in the case of a door, for instance, make the piece in 





t When there is objection to the end of a through tenon showing, it can 
be cut a little short and the mortise plugged with wood. Have the grain of 
the plug run to match that of the surface, make the plug a very little too 
large, bevel the edges slightly, glue, drive tightly into place, and smooth off 
when dry. 


226 Woodworking 


which the mortise is cut a little too long, and cut off the pro- 
jecting end (lug) after the work is finally put together. This 
lessens the danger of splitting the wood and helps in taking 
the joint apart while you are fitting it. 


= 
PU 


480. Tenons are often wedged, for strength. First enlarge 
the outer side of the mortise to make it tapering, as shown. 


fs 





481. Next make one or more saw kerfs in the end of the 
tenon and cut slender wedges to fit. A small tenon can be 
split carefully with a chisel. Insert tenon in mortise and drive 
the wedges into the kerfs. For indoor work, dip the wedges in 
glue and put glue in the kerfs with a thin stick. 





482. Drive the tenon home, spreading the end like a dove- 
tail, and trim off the projecting end. 

483. Wedged blind mortise. Made on the fer: just 
shown, but the size and taper of the wedges must be so planned 
that when they are driven home they will spread the tenon to 
fit the mortise. If the wedges are too long, they will prevent 
the joint closing. The bottom of the mortise must be flat 
where the wedges will bear or they may be bent to one side. 


Some Common Operations 227 





Apply glue (for indoor work), start the wedges in the cracks, 


and drive the tenon into place. A very strong joint if well made. 
5) 





484. Splitting from expansion and contraction. When a 
wide piece is to be mortised into another piece, two or more 
tenons are sometimes cut, to avoid too long a mortise, but this 
will not do for very wide stock, unless some of the tenons are 
fitted loosely, for the expansion and contraction of the wide 
piece may cause it to buckle or split (747). 


Ss 


485. Round tenon, fitting into a round hole. A common 
construction, used for stool and chair legs and rungs, for 
wheels, sleds, etc. Round tenons can be wedged (507). 
This differs from doweling only at one end. See 500. 





486. Showing (at the left) mortise and tenon dovetailed 
and fastened with a wedge-shaped key. Also (at the right) 


228 Woodworking 


wedging at the ends of mortise. If glue is used this strength- 
ens the joint, but is not so strong as where the tenon itself is 
spread into a dovetail. 





487. Keyed mortise and tenon. The tenon projects 
beyond the mortise, and is fastened with a wedge-shaped key 
which fits into another mortise cut in the tenon. In this case, 
shoulders are usually cut on only two sides of the main tenon, 
as shown. A strong joint if well proportioned. Much used 
for tables, book-cases, benches, etc., and for various ‘‘knock- 
down”’ constructions (2, illustration). 


488. Gauge lines on the tenon for the sides of the mortise 
into which the key or wedge is to fit, and square lines across. 





489. Cut the mortise a little too long (a little beyond the 
line) at the inner end, so that the key will force the joint to a 
tight fit. A round pin is sometimes used. 


Some Common Operations 229 





EDGE VIEW END VIEW 
(EXAGGERATED) 
490. The shoulders (467) of the tenons can be very slightly 
undercut, or beveled inward, from each side and edge, to 
ensure a snug fit. 


<P |//| Z 


491. Plain wedge-shaped keys can be got out by making 
a tapering block and then sawing lengthways, or by making 
a rectangular block and sawing slantingly, or by making each 
wedge separately. 





492. Half-lap and mortise combined. Used quite often. 
A strong joint if braces are added. 





493- Pinning a mortised joint. A strong wooden pin is 
driven through a hole to fasten the joint. Done both for small 


230 Woodworking 


work and in large construction. The large pins used for heavy 
work are called treenails. In any case, the pins should be 
split out with the grain (rift) so that they will be straight- 
grained, for strength (742). When the tenon is thick, and 
when it goes only partly through, it is common to fasten it 
with a wooden pin. If the wood be thin, wedges are often 
used. 





494. Draw-boring. To make a snug fit at the joint the 
hole in the tenon is bored a very little nearer the shoulder than 
the holes in the mortise piece. This requires good judgment, 
for if the holes are much out of line, there will be too great 
strain on the end of the tenon, on the pin, and on the sides of 
the mortise. Used for heavy construction, framing, etc. 





495. Tongue and groove combined with tenon. Good for 
door frames and similar cases. 





496. Mortise joints for horses for heavy work, held to- 
gether by bolts. 


Some Common Operations 231 





497. Mortise and tenon is the best joint for framing tables, 
chairs, etc. Doweling (500) is not so strong, usually, though 
sometimes it is better, particularly for very light work. Mor- 
tise joints of this kind can be pinned (493). Such mortises are 
sometimes dovetailed, as shown at the right. See also 487. 





498. These joints like many others, are greatly strength- 
ened by gluing and screwing corner blocks or braces on the 
inside. Metal ones can be bought. 


499. When the legs of a table or chair are small, the 
mortises and tenons will run into each other. In that case 
mitre the ends of the tenons, or let one-half of each tenon 
extend the depth of the mortise. Either of these ways is 
doubtless stronger than the joint shown at the right, but the 
latter is easier to make and a trifle cheaper. 


500. Doweling. A doweled joint is held together by 
round wooden pins, called dowels, driven, and usually glued, 





232 ~ Woodworking 


into each of the pieces. The mortise and tenon (467) is a 
stronger joint, as a rule.’ The hardest part of doweling by 
hand is to bore the holes in line. Doweling is valuable in 
pattern-making and where the parts are to be made separable 





by gluing the dowel into one part only. With skilful work, 
particularly when the dowels are split and wedged, doweling 
can be made strong enough for a great many purposes; but if 
poorly done, as in much ready-made furniture, it is an un- 
reliable joint. Boring for dowels is best done by machine 
(669) or with a doweling jig (504). 


501. Showing dowels driven, and glued, into one piece, 
ready to be forced, after gluing, into the holes in the other 
piece. The holes are countersunk slightly to catch the surplus 
glue. 

502. To dowel with common hand tools, square lines across 
both pieces from the working faces, and gauge lines at the 
required distance from the joint edge of each piece, crossing 
the lines just squared. Prick a small hole at each point 


t The comparative effectiveness of doweling and mortising has long been 
a matter of dispute. It seems probable, as a general rule, other things be- 
ing equal, that a mortise and tenon joint is stronger than a doweled one. 
But there are many cases in which doweling is better. Also, doweling is 
often used where mortising would be better. Tests made at the Forest 
Products Laboratory showed that through mortised and tenoned doors had 
the greatest strength, and stiffness. Blind mortised ones had the least 
strength, but slightly greater stiffness than doweled doors. 


Some Common Operations 233 


marked, to start the worm of the bit at the exact spot. A line 
squared on the surface, in the line of the centre of the hole, may 


Al. 


help in boring straight. At the right is shown an old way 
to mark positions for dowels. Drive brads with sharpened 
heads into one piece. Press the two pieces together and the 
brads will prick corresponding points in the other piece." 








DOWEL SHARPENER 

503. Trim off the sharp edge at the ends. The dowels 
must be thoroughly seasoned and must be a snug fit. Fit the 
work together before gluing, then take apart and glue the 
dowels into one of the pieces only. Wipe off surplus glue and 
do not disturb for a day or two. Then clean off any hardened 
glue and glue into the other piece, also gluing the joint between 
the parts. Clamp the joint together and leave under pressure 
until dry. If dowels are made to fit very tightly, are baked a 


METAL DEVICE 
FOR MARKING 
CENTRES 


* When there are many duplicate pieces to be doweled, a template of 
metal with holes punched can be used. 


234 Woodworking 


while before using, and then glued and driven at once, they 
will swell to fit very firmly. For 7/,’’ stock a 3/3’ dowel is 
usually about the right size. 1/,/’ can sometimes be used. 2” 
is usually far enough fora 3/;’’ dowel to extend into 7/3”’ stock. 
For thicker stock use larger dowels. Cut dowels a little short 
to be sure that the surfaces of the wood will come together. 





504. Doweling jig for boring squarely. Has a depth gauge. 
Will take stock up to 3” thick. Can be used also as a bit- 
guide for mortising (473). Will take bits up to 34”. 




















505. Dowels hold best if grooved or toothed lengthways, 
and are sometimes grooved spirally. A dowel cutter is a 
simple and useful machine for making dowels of different 
sizes." 

506. Doweled edge-joint. The joint and dowels are 
glued. See532. 

507. A wedged dowel. The dowel is first split (or sawed) 
lengthways at the end, and a wedge with a long taper fitted. 


* Dowel-plate or ‘‘sizer.”” A steel plate with holes of such sizes that 
pins made by driving strips of wood through them will drive snugly into 
holes made by the corresponding bits. Useful when you cannot buy dowels. 


Some Common Operations 235 


Then enlarge the bottom of the hole correspondingly (for 
which an inside gouge (93) is best), glue dowel and wedge in the 





split or saw-kerf, and force the joint home. A through dowel 
as shown is simple, but a blind one requires careful calculation 
for the same reason as in mortising. If the wedge be too 
long or too thick, the joint cannot be driven home. 





508. Mitring. The mitre is not a strong joint, but is 
frequently used for appearance. It shows no end-grain. It is 
best cut by Circular saw (585), with a Mitre-box (128), a 
Trimmer (159), or a Sander (664). 





509. Common result of mitring wide pieces flatways. If 
the wood shrinks, it is likely to open a tapering crack from the 
inner corner; if it expands, from the outer corner. 

510. To cut a mitre with common hand tools, lay out the 
angle (45°) with the bevel (35, 36), and saw to the line. The 
beginner can rarely saw four mitres by hand, as for a picture 


236 Woodworking 


frame, without having to trim one or more to fit. Sawing to 
fit can be done by drawing the pieces together as tightly as 


you can and sawing down through in the line of the joint which 
does not fit, as shown. If one sawing is not enough, repeat. 
See 535. Also, one or both ends can be planed or pared with 
the chisel." The mitre is a common joint for mouldings, etc. 
See Coping (517) and Splaying (538). To make a rectangular 
mitred frame, the mitres must be correct and the opposite 
pieces must be of the same length. Sometimes one piece can 
be placed on the opposite one and both sawed together. 


V/SE 


511. To nail a mitred joint, fasten one piece upright in the 
vise. Bore a hole in the other piece slightly smaller than the 
nail, and drive the nail until it pricks through. Then place 
this piece on the first, with the corner slightly projecting. 





* Sometimes a mitre can be laid out by placing one piece upon the other, 
testing the angle, and marking the points of crossing. Lines connecting 
these points will give the angle. 


Some Common Operations 237 


When the nail is driven home the corners will meet.' If the 
joint is also to be glued, size first with thin glue and when dry, 
scrape, glue, and nail as shown.” Mitre joints can also be 
doweled. 





512. Corner-block for mitred joint. The grain should run 
asshown. Corrugated fasteners can often be used for the back 
of a picture frame or for work like screens, etc. 

513. Clamping mitred corner. The clamps bear on blocks 
fastened on temporarily. Suitable only for work which has 
not been finished. Mitre clamped by wedges is shown at the 





Form for holding mitred joint. The piece A, of hard wood, should have 
the grain run as shown, to prevent change of angle from shrinkage. 

2 This applies only to indoor work. Do not use common glue for joints 
to be exposed to the weather. 


238 Woodworking 





right. The joint is laid flat, blocks nailed near it, and wedges 
driven.* See also 228, 241. 





514. Ways of strengthening a mitred joint. 


Special mitre cutters and clamping devices are made for picture frames, 
but the skilled workman usually fastens mitres by hand. Some forms hold 
the joint so that both pieces can be sawed with one cut, that is, sawed to fit 
(510). See mitre-box (128), trimmer (159), sander (664). _ 


Some Common Operations 239 


515. Other forms showing a mitred face combined with 
halved joint, etc. 





516. Combination of mitre and rabbet. Shows no end- 
grain and is stronger than a simple mitre, but harder to make 
by hand. Quickly made by machine.’ 

517. Coping. The end of a moulding is ‘‘coped”’ when it is 
cut to fit another piece. Coping and Dadoing (463) are the 
best ways to fit inside corners in first-class work. 

518. Instead of mitring (508) the ends of both pieces when 
they meet, cut the end of one square, and fit the other to it. 
For example, suppose the moulding to have the shape shown 


1 Joints which can be nailed both ways and glued. (See circular saw 
585). Special cutters can be obtained for such joints. 


240 Woodworking 


in section view A. Cut the end of one piece square. Then 
mitre the end of the other piece as shown at C. Then cut the 


ANGLE 45° 
A D B 


end of the moulding squarely to the curved line D, formed by 
cutting the mitre, with coping saw (127) or other tool. This 
will give the end the shape shown at B. If this end B is now 
pushed against the first piece A, it will fitit. The joint can be 
slightly undercut to make a tight fit. If a mitre opens or 
draws apart the defect is conspicuous. This is less likely to be 
the case with coping. In case of long mouldings or strips, cut 
one very slightly too long, and spring into place. 

519. Dovetailing. An excellent joint, scientific and work- 
manlike. It holds the parts in place without nails or screws, 
but glue is used for cabinet work. Dovetailing requires much 
skill to do well. It is now done by machine. 





TAILS PINS ° . LAP OR DRAWER 
DOVETAILED JOINT FOR A BOX DOVETAILING 


520. Make the pins first, mark the tails from them, and 
then cut the tails. In laying out dovetailing, put the face- 
side on the inside, the joint-edge at the bottom.’ 

«The common form, used in joining the sides of a box can be done as 
follows: mark the lines ab, using the gauge, completely around each piece, 


at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of the stock. Lay off 
the lines cd on the end of the piece A. Lay off the oblique lines ec on both 


Some Common Operations 241 


7 





521. Gained joint. Used for framing construction and for 
small work also. The recess A is called a gain. A dado (463) 
goes entirely across the surface. A gain does not. 

522. Gained joint for shelves. The gain 
does not show at thefront edge. The shoulders 
(467) at the sides of the shelves are sometimes 
omitted. 


sides of the wood. Fasten the piece in the vise, end upward, and with 
the back-saw (or a dovetail-saw) cut by these oblique lines (ec) to the lines 
ab. Lay the piece flat, and with the chisel cut out the parts to be removed 
(marked m), as in cutting a mortise, undercutting very slightly at the end. 





When this cutting has been cleanly done, lay the piece A on the end of the 
piece B in the way it is finally to go, so that the pins just cut will rest exactly 
in position across the end of the piece B. Mark around the pins, forming 
the oblique lines fg, from the ends of which square the lines gh on both 
sides of the piece. Remove the wood as before, taking care not to cut on 
the wrong sides of the lines which mark the pins, or the dovetailing may fit 
too loosely. When fitted, apply glue, put together, and when dry smooth 
off. 


242 ~ Woodworking 





523. Joint for pigeon-holes and other divisions. The 
dadoes (463) can be made all the way across either the vertical 
or the horizontal piece. Sometimes they are made one-half in 
the vertical and one-half in the horizontal piece, on the half-lap 
principle (453). Done best by machinery. A dovetailed 
joint can be used for very nice work, but is hard to make. 

524. Edge-joints. To join two or more boards or planks 
to form a wider surface. The simplest way, for rough work, is 
to square or “‘joint’’ the edges and fasten the pieces together 
with cleats on the side (366). Edge-joints are best made by 
machine (585, 654, etc.) 


Lap or drawer dovetailing is similar to the preceding form, but the dove- 
tailing does not go through to the front. The side piece A is marked and 
cut as just shown, the pins being shorter; then the other piece B is marked 





and cut to fit. Mitre dovetailing (blind or secret dovetailing) is used where it 
is desired to conceal the dovetails, the result looking like an ordinary mitred 
joint. This process requires much skill and care. 

Practised workmen in dovetailing usually (unless exact symmetry of the 
pins is required) determine the bevels for the pins of the first piece by eye. 


Some Common Operations 243 





525. Matched boards or sheathing, tongued and grooved. 
Put together without glue, usually. Used for inside and out- 
side finish, sheathing, etc. A bead or moulding at one edge 
makes the joint less conspicuous, particularly when it opens 
from shrinkage of the wood. When necessary to strike the 
edge, use a piece of waste sheathing. See 421. 


we COL 


526. Splined joint. Edges grooved (441) and a spline (a 
strip cut to fit) inserted, with or without glue, according to the 
kind of work. Used for heavy construction, mill flooring, etc., 
and sometimes for small work. Best done by machine, but 
can be made with matching-planes. The tongues or splines 
can be made with the grain running lengthways, crossways, or 
diagonally as shown above. Crossways and diagonally are 
strongest. 


527. Matched joints to make a tight fit. Done by machine 
with special cutters. Dovetailed joints. If glued, the parts 
can be separated only by breaking the wood. Best done by 
machine, although there is a hand plane for the purpose. 





244 Woodworking 


CLM LLL 


528. Rabbeted joint, sometimes used instead of tongued 
and grooved joint for rough boarding, flooring, etc. Best done 
by machine, but can be made with rabbet-plane. 


Y 


529. Fillestered joint. Both edges rabbeted and a fillet 
(strip cut to fit) used to fill the rabbets. Best done by circular 
saw (612) and other machines, but can be made with rabbet 


plane. 


530. Shiplap. Used like clapboards for siding. See 
362. 


(ee ee 


I 


531. Methods of forming a wide surface, as for the back 
of a bookcase, etc. See 381. 


Some Common Operations 245 













532. Doweled edge-joint, usually glued, unless meant to 
be separable, as in some patterns for castings, tops of extension 
dining-tables, etc., when the dowels are glued into one part 
only. See5oo. 

533- “* Glue-joints.”* A common and very important 
joint. The edges are ‘‘jointed” to make a tight joint, and 
then glued together. or this process, see 146. Best made 
by machine. Splines (526) or dowels (532) are often used with 
glue-joints. Quarter-sawed or radial-sawed middle boards are 
best. 








534. Wide surface built up of selected pieces, glued, 
doweled, bolted, etc. The grain of the wood is reversed, as 
shown at the ends, in adjoining pieces to counteract the tend- 
ency to warp, etc.” See 146, 426, etc. Tops of benches, 
machine-tables, etc., are often made in this way. 

535- End-joints. Saw the ends off as squarely as possible 
and plane or pare them if necessary. To saw to a fit, hold the 
pieces in position and run the saw down through the joint AB. 
If one sawing is not sufficient, repeat the operation. This 


t Any joint in which glue is used is a glue-joint of course, but the term is 
often applied especially to those cases in which edges are joined to form a 
wider or thicker surface, as the joints of a table-top. 

2 This may result in a slightly undulating surface, so when the surface 
must be flat and is to be fastened so that it cannot warp, arrange the grain 
to run the same way in all the pieces. Rift stock or quarter-sawed (739) 
will give the nearest to a flat surface. 


246 Woodworking 





method can be used with pieces which meet at any angle, 
but should not be relied on as a regular way to make joints, 
lest it result in a careless method of work. 





536. Ends butted over a support. Toeing the nails draws 
the ends tightly together. The ends are sometimes undercut 
slightly, so that the joint is a little open at the bottom, as 
shown, to make it close tightly on the side which shows. 


a 


537- Doweled end-joint. The dowel can be split and 


wedged (507). 
RS 


538. Ends scarfed or splayed and fastened by slightly 
slanting the nails. Often used for mouldings, clapboards, etc. 
If this joint draws apart it is not so conspicuous as when a 
butt joint opens. The ends are sometimes grooved, splined 
(526), doweled, as shown, etc., if the stock is thick enough. 

539. Slip joint, sometimes called slip mortise and tenon, 
and sometimes incorrectly called a dovetail. A common joint 
for light framework like screens, etc. Can be glued, nailed, 
screwed, or pinned. Best made by machine. To make by 
hand, see 457. Also at the right, multiple slip joint or lock- 





Some Common Operations 247 





corner made by machine. A good joint for light boxes, can be 
glued and pinned with a metal pin. 





540. Broad-surface Joints. Showing built-up hull of 
model boat. The surfaces must be flat and true, and fit 
exactly. They are best prepared by machine. A great many 
solid forms are made in this way,—shoe lasts, air-plane 
propellers, etc.* 





= 


LE Tee 
=. 


SAP SIDES JOINED HEART SIDES JOINED 





* The frames of machines, chopping-blocks, masts, bows, fishing-rods, 
and many other objects are often built up of selected pieces, to avoid flaws 
and defects, to arrange the grain to the best advantage, and to counteract 


248 Woodworking 





541. Edge of table top built up to make it thicker. Shown 
bottom side up. Have the grain of the parts to be glued 
to the top run the same way as that of the top itself. Other- 
wise expansion or contraction of the top may cause splitting 
or open joints,—unless the facing be screwed on through 
slotted holes and without glue. 





542. When gluing two or more thin boards to make a 
thicker piece, if one of the pieces be turned slightly out of line 
with the grain of the wood, it will lessen the danger of warping. 
See Plywood (758). 

543. Splicing. There are many ways of splicing two or 
more pieces to get greater length, some for bridge-building, 
house-framing, etc., being quite complicated, but rarely used 
by the general woodworker. 


warping tendencies. When glue is used there is always danger that the 
joints may open and the work come apart, unless also screwed, nailed or 
bolted. A piece that is practically perfect will be more durable than a 
built-up combination, under all conditions, but may not hold its shape 
so well or be so strong at first as one built up with smaller pieces of selected 
stock. 


Some Common Operations 249 





HALVED SPLICE . 


- 544. Spliced butt joint. Strips (fish plates) nailed on each 
side. Used for scaffolding and other rough work. The nails 
or bolts are ‘“‘staggered”’ (213). 


Nee Aaa 


545. Columns, cylinders, silos, and other curved forms are 
often built up with strips—lags or staves,—the edges being 
beveled in various ways, sometimes tongued and grooved, 
splined, or doweled. Such joints are best fitted by machine. 
sometimes the last stave is fitted by hand. See Clamps 
(238). 





Ge Ge 
P= of S ay 


546. Other circular or curved constructions often have to 
be built up, as shown, or in similar ways. The grain is arranged 


250 Woodworking 


in different directions, and the pieces break joints so that they 
strengthen each other when fastened together. Even large 


circular houses have been built up of layers of plank in this 
way. Doweling is sometimes used. See also Bending (312). 


° 





547. Some common joints for horses and in similar cases. 

548. Joint for a brace. The mitred joint, to be nailed, 
shown in 450, is sufficient for common work and light building 
construction. Where there is much strain to be put upon the 
work, use one of the joints shown below. 


ees 


549. Thrust joint for a brace. Stronger than a nailed 
mitre. 


Some Common Operations 251 


“Sl 


550. Another form for diagonal bracing. 





551. Joints for heavy construction. 


552. Notched joint, used in timber construction and some- 
times for small work. Cogged joint. 


252 Woodworking 





553. Bird’s mouth joint, used for rafters. There are many 
other joints used in building construction. 





554. Stretcher joint. Used for frames for canvas for 
painters’ use, for stretching lace curtains, etc. By tapping the 
wedges or keys at the corners the frame is enlarged and the 
canvas or other material stretched. Two arrangements are 
shown. 

555. Screw-pockets for fastening the top of a table to the 
rails beneath, and for similar cases. First bore a good-sized 
hole on the inside of the rail, then bore the hole for the screw 


Some Common Operations 253 





down from the top edge of the rail at a slight slant into the 
larger hole first bored. The screws are driven up from the 
inside, where they will not show. 









\N 






* 







WN 





N77 





Ht 
> 
=. 





556. Other methods. Strips of wood with holes can be 
screwed to the rails and also to the top. For wide tops slotted 
holes will allow for expansion and contraction of the top (747). 
Wooden buttons grooved into the rails and screwed to the top, 
as shown, are also used. To make these get out a wide piece 
as shown, and then saw into narrow pieces. Common corner- 
irons can be used and there are special metal devices. See 


Counterboring (177). 


254 Woodworking 


ih 
| 


N 
| l) 











557. Joint for fastening shelf to a round leg. Can be 
glued; or a dowel can be used. 





558. Showing tenon for cross bars of a sled and in similar 
cases. Also corner-iron for cross bar of a sled, and screw put 
through runner and tenon where cross bar is mortised into 
runner. 





559. Rabbeted joint for boat stem. Also other joints 
for bow of boat. 


A 





560. Hopper joint. Easily made by machine, but hard 
to make by hand. For plain butt joints as shown at A, lay out 
slant for the sides with the bevel, or by measuring from a 


Some Common Operations 255 


centre line. Saw the joints and nail together. For a mitred 
joint, as at B, the simplest way for the beginner is to saw 
the edges squarely as for butt joints, and then bevel them with 
the plane. See Circular saw (622). 


LOCK-FITTING 


561. Lock-fitting. There are so many varieties of locks,— 
rim-locks, locks to be screwed on the outside of the wood, 
others to be sunk in recesses cut in the side of the wood, mor- 
tise-locks to be let into mortises, chest-locks, door-locks, pad- 
locks, cupboard-locks, drawer-locks, etc., that it will be wise 
to examine a well-fitted lock like the one you have to fit. 

562. To fit a chest or box-lock (not a mortise-lock), place 
it in position. Determine the place for the keyhole, and bore 
it. Mark around the part to be sunk in the wood, and cut it 
out with gouge and chisel. Trim the keyhole to a neat outline 
like the shape of the key. When the lock has been screwed in 
place, put the “‘hasp,” or part to be fastened to the lid, into 
its place in the lock, where it will be when the chest is closed. 
Then shut the lid, and press slightly to make a mark to help 
show where to put the hasp, or transfer-paper can be put be- 
tween the hasp and the wood, or blackened grease rubbed on 
the plate of the hasp. Sometimes the hasp has points to prick 
the wood. Outline the place for it with knife, square, and 
gauge, sink the plate into the lid flush with the surface, and 
screw itin place. A mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way, but 
let into a mortise. 

563. To fit a common drawer-lock, determine the place for 
the keyhole and bore it. Hold the lock in position on the 
inside and with a pencil mark the outline of the box-part of the 
lock, which bears against the wood, and cut the recess for it. 
Put the lock into place and mark the outline of the outer plate 
on the inside of the drawer front and on the top edge. The 
thickness of the metal must be allowed for, both on the inside 


256 Woodworking 


and on the edge, that the surface of the plate may be flush with 
the wood. Pare away the wood carefully with the chisel to let 
the plate sink flush. When the keyhole is shaped, see whether 





the lock works before screwing it on. Close the drawer and 
turn the key hard to raise the bolt (the top of which has been 
previously rubbed with blackened grease, such as can be 
scraped from an oilstone), which will mark the place for the 
mortise into which it is to slide. Cut this mortise and the 
drawer can be locked. 

564. Rim-lock for door. Hold in position. The keyhole 
for a common house door is usually about 2’ 11”’ from the floor, 
unless it conflicts with a mortise. Mark places for holes, cut 
the holes, and screw lock in place. Add knob-plates, knobs, 
and escutcheons, and set the striking-plate on the jamb. 

565. Mortise door lock. Cut mortise in edge of door to fit 
body of lock (469, etc.), and sink face plate of lock flush with 
edge of door. Remove lock, place on outside of door, mark 
places for holes for knob and key, cut holes, screw lock in place, 
put on knob-plates, knobs, and escutcheons. ‘Then mark place 
for striking plate on jamb and set it flush with the wood. 

Mitring, see 508. 

Mortising, see 467. 

Painting, see 412. 

Paneling, see 372. 


PATTERN MAKING 


566. Pattern making. A distinct and important branch of 
woodworking, calling for a high degree of skill and technical 


Some Common Operations 257 


knowledge. It is not treated here for lack of space, and 
because it is not considered as coming within the scope of the 
beginner or the amateur general woodworker. When the 
beginner reaches the point where he wishes to make patterns 
for castings, he should seek a competent instructor or some of 
the numerous books on the subject. 


RABBETING 


567. Rabbeting. A rabbet isa rectangular recess cut along 
the edge of a piece of material. Best made by machine (612). 
To make by hand, use a rabbet plane. If you have no such 
plane, mark out the rabbet carefully with gauge or square and 
knife. In some cases a rabbet can be sawed. The chisel can 
be used to remove the wood. For the final trimming, hold 
flat side of chisel toward the line (86). <A strip of wood or the 
blade of a square can be clamped at the line, as a guide for the 
cutting (wood for sawing, the square for chiselling). Rabbets 
are best cut with the Jointer (654), with special cutters on the 
Circular saw bench, or as shown in 612. 


[REPAIRING FURNITURE, ETC. 


568. Repairing often requires more knowledge and skill 
than to make new articles. When using glue for furniture 
which has come apart, first remove all the old glue, and see 
that the parts fit tightly, otherwise there is little use in re- 
gluing. Ifa tenon be too small, glue on thin pieces and trim 
them afterwards to fit. If this cannot be done, wrap a little 
muslin laid in glue, around the tenon. This can be done with 
dowels. Sometimes tenons and dowels can be split and wedged 
(507). Where the heads of screws would show, first make, 
with bit or chisel, a round or square hole to admit the head of 
the screw and deep enough to plug with a piece of wood of the 
same kind. (See 569.) A mended joint may not be so 


258 Woodworking 


strong as when new, therefore reinforce it with a block, or 
brace, glued and screwed on the under, inner, or back side, 
when it will not show. Corner-irons or iron straps are often 
best. Always press re-glued parts firmly together until the 
glue has dried out, with hand-screws (see 244 for suggestion), 
clamps, a rope doubled and twisted with a stick, —any means 
to apply pressure (228, 241, etc.).? 





569. A large hole or defect is best filled with a plug of 
wood. Trim the hole to an irregular shape, make the plug 
a trifle too large, and bevel it slightly, so that when driven 
in place or clamped, with glue, it will make a snug fit. Match 
wood and grain as closely as you can. When the glue is hard, 
trim to the surface. To make circular plugs cut into the side 
of a piece of wood, making a short dowel, with the grain cross- 
ways, and then split off the plugs with a saw or chisel. See 
177, 186. 


ROUNDING STICKS AND EDGES 


570. Rounding sticks and edges by hand. First, make 
the stick square, then eight-sided (155. See also 618). Set 
the plane fine, plane off the eight corners, making the stick 
sixteen-sided. Do the rest of the rounding with fine strokes. 
Use the file for small sticks, turning the stick as you file. Finish 
by sanding (201). Round an edge by first planing away the two 
angles, so that there will be four angles, and so on. ‘The lathe 


t Where the rungs of chairs, etc., cannot be re-glued strongly, a small iron 
rod can often be inserted under the rung to bolt the parts together. By 
sinking the head and nut of the rod and plugging the holes, the rod can be 
quite inconspicuous. Strong adhesive tape is very useful where appearance 
is not important. 


Some Common Operations 259 


(672) is the regular machine for rounding pieces, or the dowel- 
cutter for small sticks (505), and the moulding machine for 
edges (719). When rounding little sticks with the knife, draw 
the stick along between the knife and your leg. There is a 
cornering-tool for slightly rounding edges (arrises). 


SCRIBING WITH COMPASSES, ETC. 


571. Scribing with compasses, etc., to fit an irregular sur- 
face. Mark a piece to be fitted to an irregular surface by 








eff etl 


REPRODUCING AN IRREGULAR SHAPE BY TACKING STRIPS TO A BOARD 


drawing the compasses along, as shown. Keep them at the 
sameangle. (See also 66 footnote). With small mouldings or 
where the compasses cannot scribe, make a series of dots with 
one of the points.* 


t To fit the last of a series of boards in an irregular corner, or in similar 
cases, mark the required width at each end of the board. Hold the board 
so that these marks are equally distant from the corner. Set the com- 
passes to reach from either of the marks to the corner, and scribe the length 
of the board. 


260 Woodworking 


SHELF-FITTING 


572. Permanent shelves are best fitted at the ends with a 
gained joint (522), a plain grooved joint or dado (463), or a 


ie 


dovetail for very nice work (466). Removable shelves can 
rest on cleats at the ends, but this is usually not desirable. 
With expensive wood it is common to use cheaper wood for 
shelves, with the front edge faced with the more costly wood. 
After gluing on the facing, planing and smoothing the surfaces, 
the cheaper wood is stained to match the facing. 





To mark the board C to fit the edge AB at the angle A. If the edge AB 
is straight, fit the bevel to the angle and mark the board by it. If you have 
no bevel, place a board of uniform width against the edge AB and mark 
a line parallel to it. Or scribe with compasses (571). If the edge AB is 
crooked, scribe with compasses. 


Se. OO SE 





To find the bevel in a case like fitting the bottom to the sides of a boat, 
lay a straight-edge across and set the bevel to fit the angle. Sometimes 
you can scribe parallel to the straight-edge, and sometames simply plane to 
‘fit. See 28, 34, 318. 


Some Common Operations 261 


j= 


573. Showing notched strips into which fit cleats to support 
the shelves. Lay the strips on edge side by side, clamp to- 
gether, and cut notches as if one piece; or cut the notches on 
the side of a narrow board, and then saw into strips. For 
another way; a row of holes can be bored in a strip, the strip 
sawed in two, and cleats with rounded ends used. 

Simple moveable metal supports, with pins to fit into holes 
in the sides of the case, can be obtained; or, for rough work, 
dowels or screw-eyes can be used. 

Shellacing, see 406. 





SHINGLING 


574. Shingling. Begin shingling a roof at the eaves and 
work upward. Lay a row the length of the roof, letting the 
butts slightly overhang the edge. On this row lay another, 
breaking joints with that underneath; that is, lay the first row 
double, but so that the shingles of the upper row cover the 
joints of the row beneath. Leave a slight space (perhaps 
™/ 3!’ to 3/3’) between the shingles, unless they are wet. This 
gives room for swelling and allows the water to run off freely. 
Fasten each shingle with two shingle nails (one near each 
edge, within perhaps 1’’), far enough up from the butt to be 
covered by the next row of shingles. | 

575. Lay the butts of each row by a chalk-line (49, 50) or 
against the edge of'a narrow board, which can be adjusted 


262 Woodworking 


and temporarily held in place by two strips nailed to it and to 
the ridge of the roof. If you chalk two parallel lines, two courses 
can be carried along together. Be careful to break joints with 
the row last laid, and with the one above it, to prevent leaking. 





















Common shingles (16”’ long) for a roof are best laid 434” to the 
weather; that is, with that portion of the length exposed at the 
butt. Some lay 5” tothe weather. If shingles of extra length 
are used, the distance can be varied accordingly. Trim off 
the upper ends of the top row and put on saddle-boards at the 
top, nailing one saddle-board to the edge of the other. 

576. Cut nails are better than wire ones for shingling, as 
the latter rust away quickly, but galvanized wire nails last 
much longer. Cedar or cypress shingles are good. Spruce is 
poor for shingles. Sapwood is objectionable. Small knots or 
defects at the thin ends, where they will be covered by two or 
three layers, do no harm in common work. A cheaper grade is 
often used for the sides of less important buildings, and laid 
with greater exposure to the weather. Old-fashioned shingles 
of cypress, cedar, pine, etc., hand-rift (split with the grain, 
742) and then shaved to shape, were very durable compared 
with modern sawed shingles. Manufactured shingles of 
asbestos, asphalt, etc., have advantages over any but the better 
grades of wooden shingles, besides being either incombustible 


Some Common Operations 263 


or more or less fire-resistant. Wooden ones may look better 
in some cases. 





577. Showing easily made brackets for supporting staging 
at the eaves. Brackets for support part way up the roof 
(roof-brackets) can be bought at any hardware shop. 


SPLITTING WOOD 


578. Splitting wood is done on the principle of the wedge. 
Wood will split, as it cracks, most easily on the radial lines 





or in the direction of the medullary rays (731), and also 
on the lines of the annual rings (732). See 74, 75, 76. 
Staining, see 399. 


264 Woodworking 
UPHOLSTERING 


579. Upholstering. This cannot be treated in this book, 
but the reader is referred to Furniture Upholstery, JOHNSON, 
for a simple treatment of the subject. 

Varnishing. See 407. 


VENEERING 


580. Veneering was practised by the ancients. It has 
become an important part of the manufacture of modern 
furniture, etc. Veneering on a large scale, as done in factories, 
is a highly technical process, and hardly suitable work for 
the beginner; but small plain work can be successfully done 
if sufficient care be taken. Veneers are sawed or sliced very 
thin from valuable logs, and are used to cover the surface of 
cheaper wood. 

Veneering should be done upon soft, straight-grained wood 
which is not liable to warp or twist and is free from knots, as 
clear pine, chestnut, etc. The base or core must be thoroughly 
seasoned. Radial-sawed stock is best (739). The core can 
be built of strips (754). The surface to be veneered and the 
under side of the veneer are first toothed with the toothing 
plane (134, footnote). The surface to be veneered is sized 
with thin glue, which is allowed to dry. 

The veneer, which should be cut a little too large, is damp- 
ened with hot water on the upper side, and the glue then 
applied to the other side. Next, the surface to be veneered 
is glued and the veneer put in place. The whole operation 
should be done as quickly as possible. To keep the veneer 
firmly in place until the glue has set strongly, it is pressed 
and held by a caul or mould previously fitted to the surface 
and secured by clamps. Veneering pins (brads) can be used 
to help keep the veneer in place temporarily until the cauls 
are in place. The caul can be made of wood or of metal, should 
be warm (thick zinc retains heat well), and the surfaces soaped 


Some Common Operations 265 


to prevent sticking, or paper inserted. When cauls are 
clamped the pressure should come first near the middle of 
the surface, so that the glue will be evenly distributed. Leave 
for several days. For very small flat work or patching, a flat- 


iron can be used. 
Seal 


\ 


581. Veneers are also laid with a veneering hammer. After 
dampening the surface, and pressing into place with the hand, 
the hammer is held near the head with the handle turned 
away from the operator, pressed down hard, and worked 
over the surface from the centre to the edge, forcing out the 
glue. The surface is finally dampened and wiped with a dry 
cloth: The use of the hammer requires considerable skill 
and experience. 

The hammer is worked along in a zigzag way, advancing 
first one edge and then the other. The blade of the hammer 
is of thin steel, with rounded edges, set in a kerf in the head. 
In case of blisters, make a slit with a knife to let the air escape. 


QUESTIONS 


ASSEMBLING. 1. Which parts should usually be assembled first? Why? 
2. What must not be neglected when assembling? 
3. In what order should you assemble a common box?—a four-legged 
table?—a mitred picture frame?—a simple framed building of one story? 
4. Show the process of testing case work. 
5. Why should glue nat be used in attaching table-tops, for fastening panels, 
.and in similar cases? 
BENDING. 6. Name the essentials for bending wood successfully. 
7. Describe a steam chest. 
8. If you have no steam chest, what can you do? 
9. Show how to arrange forms for bending. 
10. If only one side of a piece will show after bending, what can sometimes 
be done? 


266 Woodworking 


11. What other methods of bending are there? 

12. When is it best to bend wood in the direction of the medullary rays? 
—at right angles to them? 

BEVEL AND CHAMFER. 13. What is the difference between a bevel and a 
chamfer? 

14. Show how to lay out a chamfer or a bevel, how to cut it, and how to test it. 

15. When both side and end are to be cut which would you do first? 

Box MAkinG. 16. What is most essential in box making? 

17. Where should natls be used and where screws? 

18. Where may glue be used and where 1s tt of little value? 

19. Show good joints for common boxes—for tanks. 

20. In what ways are packing boxes often weak? Show how to make strong 
ones. 

21. In what ways are packing crates often weak? Show how to make strong 
ones. 

CARVING. 22. How are most carving tools sharpened? 

23. Show the process of removing waste wood for simple designs in low relief, 
how to cut the outline, to mold the shape, and to finish the background. 

24. Show the principle of roughing out work in high relief. 

25. How much smoothness should the work have when done? 

26. What are the most suitable ways to finish carved work? 

CLAPBOARDING. 27. Show the process of laying clapboards. 

CLEATING. 28. Show how to arrange cleats, and the natls or screws, most 
strongly for a door made of several boards. 

29. Why should glue not be used in such cases? 

30. When cleating wide stock how can you allow for expansion and con- 
traction? 

31. Show arrangements for end cleats—for a dovetailed side cleat. 

Door AND PANEL MAKING. 32. What advantages have paneled doors? 

33. What joints can be used in making doors? Which ts best? 

34. Why must a panel not fit tightly? Why must it not be glued in 
place? 

35. Show the general process of putting a door together. 

36. Compare built-up smooth doors and doors with panels. 

37. Show the process of fitting and hinging a door. 

DRAWER MAKING. 38. Show suitable joints for a drawer. Which is the 
best? 

39. In which direction should the grain of the bottom run? Why? 

40. How should the bottom be fitted and fastened? Why? 

41. Show how to arrange slides and guides for a drawer. 

FINISHING. 42. What conditions are essential for successful finishing? 

43. Show how to fill holes and cracks—to remove dents and bruises. 


Some Common Operations 267 


44. From what direction should the light come? 

45. Which parts should you finish first?. Why? 

46. Show the process of finishing doors and paneled work. Why should 
this order be followed? 

47. Compare water, oil, and alcohol stains. State their advantages and 
disadvantages. Which do you prefer? 

48. Show how to apply stains. 

49. Why are varnish stains unsuitable for nice work? 

50. What ts the fuming process? 

51. When and why may you use lime water, bi-chromate of potash, etc.? 

52. What advantages have these chemical processes? 

53. When ts filling desirable? What solid ingredient is best? 

54. Show the process. 

55. Show how to use shellac—how to begin the strokes, how to continue 
them, and how to rub the work down. 

56. With what may shellac be thinned? 

57. What conditions are necessary for good varnishing? 

58. With what may varnish be thinned? 

59. How can you avoid “‘laps’’ in applying shellac and varnish? 

60. How much time should be allowed between coats of varnish and of shellac? 
Why? 

61. Show the process of finishing doors and paneled work. 

62. Why should this order be followed? 

63. Show the process of rubbing dow. 

64. Can you use shellac over varnish?—varnish over shellac? Why? 

65. What is essential for a good wax finish? 

66. Show the process of waxing and rubbing. 

67. How should you give an oil finish? 

68. Describe the use of wood lacquer? 

69. Show how to refinish old work—if in bad condition—tf merely worn 
and dull. 

70. How can you clean and brighten an old finish? 

71. What methods of finishing are used tn factorres? 

PAINTING. 72. What conditions are essential for successful painting? 

73. How should you treat knots or resinous places before painting? 

74. Why should the first coat be thin for new work? 

75. Show the general process of applying paint—how to avord laps. 

76. When should you putty holes and cracks? 

77. How long should paint be allowed to harden between coats? Why? 

78. Show the process of painting doors and paneled work. Why follow this 


79. With what should paint be thinned for outside work?—for inside work? 


268 Woodworking 


80. When should you use turpentine to thin for outside work? 
81. What thinner should be used to produce a flat dull surface for interior 
work? 
82. What kinds of paint are used for tron? 
83. What should be the composition of putty? 
FLASHING. 84. Stow how to flash window and door casings, etc.—a 
brick chimney—a valley. 
FLOORLAYING. 85. What should be the condition of the under floor? 
86. Show how to lay the first boards, how to draw each succeeding board to a 
tight joint, how to break joints at the ends, and how to nail securely. 
87. What conditions of temperature and dryness, when laying, are necessary 
io make a permanently satisfactory floor? 
GLAzING. 88. Show how to do common glazing on old work—on new 
work—how to set a plate glass mirror. 
GLUE AND GLUING. 89. How should you prepare hot glue? 
90. What are the essential conditions for good gluing? 
gt. Why should the pieces be equally dry and sawed in the same way? 
92. How must the surfaces be fitted to make a good joint? 
93. In case of glue joints like those for table-tops, what is the order of pro- 
cedure in planing and gluing? 
94. What are the temperature requirements for room, wood, and glue to 
insure good work? 
95. How is the strength of glue affected by heating to a higher tempera- 


96. After applying the glue, what should you do next? 
97. How much time can you take to do good work with hot glue? 
98. When can you safely remove clamps from a glued joint? 
99. How can you often glue small pieces of soft wood? 
100. If you have no means of clamping, what can you do? 
101. How thick should the glue be? Why should tts thickness depend upon 
the characteristics of the wood? 
102. At what stage of the process should water be put with the glue? 
103. What effect has remelting upon the strength of glue? 
104. How can you tell good glue? 
105. How should you glue end-grain? Why size the end-grain? 
106. How desirable are end butt joints in regard to strength? 
107. How long should a glued joint be left before planing the surface? Why? 
108. What are the advantages of liquid glue?—uits disadvantages? 
109. From what causes do glued joints frequently come apart? Can this be 
prevented? 
110. What is the proper construction for a glue pot? 
111. From what are water-resistant glues made? 


Some Common Operations 269 


112. Why ts stock often built up by gluing? How should the parts be 
arranged with reference to the heart and sap sides? 

GROOVING. 113. Show how to cut a groove with hand tools. 

114. What ts the difference between a groove and a dado? 

HINGES. 115. Show how to fit chest or box hinges—strap or surface 
hinges—T hinges—door hinges, etc. 

INLAYING. 116. Show the general principle of inlaying,—how to lay out, 
cut, fit, glue the parts, and smooth the surface. 

Jornts. 117. What is essential in making a good joint? 

118. What 1s usually the first thing to do before laying out joints for good 
work? 

119. In what ways may butt joinis be fastened?—how strengthened? 

120. Show the use of corner blocks and other devices for strengthening angles, 
etc. 

121. What ts a draw-bolt joint? 

122. Show various ways of making end joints. 

123. Show common ways of splicing to get greater length. 

124. Show how to make a cross lap or halved joint—an end halved joint 
—a middle halved joint—beveled and dovetailed forms. 

125. Show forms of rabbeted joints. 

126. When would you use a dado joint? Show how to lay it out and how to 
cut 1t with hand tools. 

127. Show a joint combining dado and rabbet. 

128. What 1s a gained joint?—a notched joint?—a cogged joint? 

129. What joint would you use for shelves, pigeonholes, etc.? 

130. How can you avoid bruising the edges of matched boards when pounding 
them into place? 

131. What is a splined joint for edges? How should the grain of the spline 
run, for strength? | 

132. What is a mortise and tenon joint?—a through mortise?—a blind 
mortise? 

133. When ts a through mortise best? 

134. Show the process of laying out a mortise—the proper proportions 
of the mortise and tenon. 

135. Show how to cut the mortise,—several ways. Which do you prefer? 
Why? 

136. Show how to lay out and cut the tenon. 

137. What ts a stub mortise and tenon? When used? 

138. Show the process where the tenon is cut on all four sides. 

139. Show the principle of wedged tenons—wedged blind mortise—other 
forms of wedged and keyed tenons. 

140. Show how to lay out and cut a keyed through mortise and tenon. 


270 Woodworking 


141. Show how to pin a tenon. What is drawboring? 

142. Show tongue and groove and mortising combined, as for a door. 

143. What form of mortise and tenon would you use for the joints of a tabk 
where the rails join the legs? 

144. How can you strengthen such a joint? 

145. When may a round tenon be used? 

146. What are dowels and what is doweling? 

147. Show the process of laying out the work, boring, fitting the dowels and 
putting the parts together. 

148. Show the principle of wedging dowels. 

149. What is a mitred joint? Its advantages and disadvantages? For what 
is the mitre a suitable joint? 

150. Show what frequently results from mitring wide pieces flatways. 

151. Show how to lay out and cut a mitre. 

152. If all the four joints of a mitred frame do not fit, what can you do? 

153. What two things are essential in making a rectangular mitred frame? 

154. Show how to nail a mitred joint, how to glue it, and how to clamp it. 

155. Show ways to strengthen mitred joints. 

156. What is the simplest way to saw a mitre? 

157. What is dovetatling and what are its advantages? 

158. Show the processes in box dovetailing—lap or drawer dovetailing 
—wmitre (or blind) dovetatling. 

159. Show how to make a coped joint. When desirable? 

160. What is a rabbeted edge joint?—a fillistered joint?—shiplap? 

161. Which boards, with regard to the way they are sawed from the log, are 
the best for glued joints? 

162. How is a glue-joint often reinforced? 

163. How should you arrange the grain of narrow pieces to build up a wider 
surface? Why? 

164. What advantage has a housed joint? 

165. How can you strengthen a right angle in light construction?—for 
heavy work? 

166. What ts a bird’s mouth joint?—for what used? 

167. What is a slip joint, or a slip mortise and tenon, and for what used? 
—a multiple slip joint, or lock corner, and for what used? 

168. What advantage and disadvantage in gluing flat surfaces to form a 
thicker piece? 

169. How should you arrange the grain in such cases, except for plywood? 

170. How are columns, cylinders, stlos, and other curved forms often made? 
—how clamped and fastened? 

171. Show ways to build up other circular or curved constructions. How 
should the grain be arranged in the different pieces? 


Some Common Operations 271 


172. Show how to fasten the top of a table to the frame beneath. 

173. Whats a hopper joint? Show how to make it. 

Locks. 174. Show how to fit a chest or box lock—a common drawer 
lock—a rim lock for door—a mortise lock for door. 

RABBETING. 175. Whatisarabbet? Show how to cut one with hand tools. 

REPAIRING. 176. Show how to refit tenons and dowels, and to reinforce 
weak spots—to fill holes and defects. 

ROUNDING. 177. Show how to round a stick or an edge. 

SCRIBING. 178. Show how to make one piece fit another by scribing. Illus- 
trate by several examples. 

SHELVES. 179. What joints would you use in fitting the ends of permanent 
shelves for nice work. 

180. What common ways of fitting the ends of movable shelves? 

SHINGLING. 181. Show the process of shingling. 

SPLITTING Woop. 182. In what ways 1s splitting wood done most easily? 

VENEERING. 183. What are veneers? 

184. Show the general process of applying the veneer and of securing 1n 
place with cauls or hammer. 


COMMON WOODWORKING MACHINES AND 
THEIR USES 


582. All who work in wood, even if they do not use machin- 
ery themselves, should be familiar with the general principles 
on which the machines work, should know what they can do, 
and how to avoid injury from them. 

The beginner should learn under the supervision of an 
experienced operator. Each machine should be kept in good 
order, properly adjusted and lubricated, and the cutting-edges 
sharp. Also, while using a machine, the operator should 
attend strictly to what he is doing. This can not be im- 
pressed too strongly upon him, or upon others who might 
distract his attention. 

There are now so many designs and arrangements for each 
kind of machine, and the progress of invention is so rapid, that 
no book can include all the latest developments, for there is 
as yet no last word on the subject of machinery. Therefore 
the special study of such machines as are in use in each work- 
shop should be made from the machines themselves. 

583. The most important machines for general wood- 
working are the Circular-saw, Band-saw, Planer, Jointer, 
Moulder, Boring-machine, Sanding-machine, Mortising-ma- 
chine, Tenoning-machine, Jig-saw, Turning-lathe, Scraping- 
machine, Spraying-machine, and Rubbing-machine. There 
are many others for special purposes, and others which auto- 
matically perform several operations at once. Combination 
machines often save expense and space, and are useful in a 
small shop; but if used by many persons time is wasted in 
changing the adjustments and in waiting for one’s turn. 

272 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 273 


Separate machines with independent motors are best. Ma- 
chines should be securely bolted to a firm foundation, and be 
free from vibration. 

584. There is an element of danger in all machines, and 
even in the use of the common hand tools, but the scroll-saw, 
lathe, band-saw, and sander are safe machines if used with 
reasonable care. The others (and the band-saw also) should 
be used only with proper safe guards. The presence of the 
guards also keeps in the operator’s mind the fact that there is 
danger to be avoided. Not only the cutting parts, but belts, 
gears, shafting, pulleys, sprockets, etc., should be guarded. 
Those who are careful use woodworking machines constantly 
without injury. Those who are careless are likely to be seri- 
ously hurt; and every beginner should be carefully coached 
in regard to the peculiar dangers of each machine.* With 
machines having fences or gauges for guiding the work, the 
‘“‘joint-edge,”’ or ‘‘face-side,”’ (27, 72) of the wood is kept 
against the fence or gauge. The Swing cut-off saw (or the 
bench-saw) is usually the first machine used, to cut the pieces 
roughly to length. The Jointer next makes joint edges and 
face-sides; the Circular-saw cuts to accurate dimensions, 
allowing for any necessary planing or smoothing; the Jointer, 
Scraper, Sanding-machines, etc., smooth the parts; Spraying 
and Rubbing-machines finish the work. 


CIRCULAR SAW 


585. Circular saw. A disk of steel with teeth on the edge, 
mounted on a shaft or arbor, and revolved by power. Large 
saws cut logs into lumber. Smaller ones (bench-saws, swing- 
saws, etc.) do most of the work formerly done by hand sawing. 


t Projecting set-screws should not be used on revolving parts. The 
floors near the machines should not be slippery. Where enough work is 
done to justify their purchase, self-feeding machines are usually safer and 
more efficient. 


274 Woodworking 
ARERR RISEN AUT AE RCE |S 
wooo To BE SAWED = |_o i oS eae 






586. Showing simple principle of a saw bench. The 
operator pushes the wood against the saw, which revolves 
toward him. Rip sawing is shown in this case. 











WOOO TO BE 
[_ _ SAwed 






587. Showing how the wood is guided for these fundamen- 
tal operations. A is a gauge or fence to guide the wood for 
ripping. Its distance from the saw can be adjusted. B isa 
sliding gauge to guide the wood for cross-cutting. 

588. Showing saw (at the left) in normal position, at right 
angles to the table. Also showing adjustable ripping gauge. 


ent. 





A MOTOR-DRIVEN BENCH SAW 


Showing saw (at the right) tilted for bevel sawing. Also 
showing adjustable cut-off gauge, sliding in dovetailed grooves, 
for cutting at a right angle or at other angles. 


ET foe ee eee ee ae 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 275 
i aay ae Daag a 


SPRING SET SWAGED 


589. The teeth of the saws are similar to those of hand 
saws (99).". Many prefer to have the rip-saw swaged instead 
of set in the common way. 

590. The saw can be raised or lowered or tilted for sawing 
at anangle. With some machines the table tilts instead of the 
saw, but it is better to have the saw tilt. Sometimes part of 
the bench-top, instead of the cross-cutting gauge, slides or 
rolls. The ripping gauge can also be tipped to rip at a bevel, 
and the cross-cutting gauge can be turned to saw at any angle. 
With various adjustments almost any kind of a straight cut 
can be made. Even the simplest type of machine, with few 
adjustments, saves much of the measuring, gauging, squaring, 
marking, testing, etc., necessary with hand work. Themachine 
should be so placed that the operator faces the light. Some 
machines have two revolving arbors, to save changing saws, so 
that either a ripping or a cross-cutting saw can be used quickly, 
the other being lowered below the table. 

591. To change saws, unscrew nut, take off washer, put 
saw on arbor with the teeth pointing toward the front. Re- 
place washer and nut. Screw the nut tight, but do not 
force it very hard with the wrench, for the motion tends to 
keep it tight. 


t Mitre or combination saws, concave-ground saws, ‘“‘novelty’’ saws, are 
so made that they cut smoothly for both ripping and cross-cutting. These 
are very desirable for fine work and to save changing saws frequently. 
The speed of the saw shown is 3,450 R.P.M. (revolutions per minute). 
A saw will not work well if run at either an excessively high or excessively 
low speed. Of the two extremes, too slow speed is the safer. If a saw 
heats, see whether the teeth are set properly. There are no definite limits 
to the power required for a bench-saw. Three to five H.P. (horse power) is 
usually sufficient for fixed shop machines, while the little portable ones 
(624) will do good work with stock not over 114” thick, if fed at a moderate 
speed, with only 14 H.P. 


276 Woodworking 


UL IULLUIL LTT TT? 7, 





592. A safety guard and a spreader lessen the dangers. 
There should always be a spreader or splitter behind the saw, 
to keep the kerf from closing, and to prevent waste pieces 
being caught by the teeth at the rear and hurled forward.’ 
A safety guard should also be used. There are many 


forms. ? 
593. See that the saw is sharp, and that the splitter and 


safety-guard are in place. Roll up your sleeves and have no 
dangling clothing. 


-__ 
gee eS 


<————__ Wood. TO bE SAWEO 


t‘*The spreader should be slightly beveled on the inner edge, and 
slightly thinner than the saw kerf, but thicker than the saw disk. It 
should always be securely fastened in careful alignment with the saw, and 
about 3/3” behind it.”—Simonds Manufacturing Co. 

2‘*Tn construction, the guard should be light, so that it may be easily 
handled; should be substantial, and with rigid support, to avoid vibration 
and consequent danger of contact with saw. The softer metals are usually 
considered better material for the hood as contact of the saw with the hood 
is not so likely to result in a broken saw. The guard should be so con- 
structed that it will automatically adjust itself to the varying thicknesses 
of the stock; it should be sufficiently open to give the operator a reasonably 
clear vision of the saw blade while in operation. The supports should 
be so set that they will not interfere with the work. The guard should be 
permanently attached to the machine so that it cannot be readily removed. 
The hood, however, should be so constructed that it may be swung out of the 
way for special work to which the guard cannot be adapted. The guard 
should be so arranged that it can be adjusted to the tilting of the saw table 
without interfering with the free working of the saw.”— Simonds Manu- 
facturing Co. 


he wex 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 277 


594. Have the saw project above the table only enough to 
cut through the wood,—never more than 44” above it." Keep 
the safety-guard almost touching the wood. Turn on the 
power yourself, for safety. Stand close to the saw-bench. 
Let the saw get up speed before beginning to cut. 

595. Ripsawing. Before starting the machine, set ripping 
gauge at a distance from the saw equal to the width required 
to be cut, using the rule, or the scale on the table, if there 
is one. For accurate work, test by sawing a piece of waste, 
and measuring the width actually cut. If edge-planing is to 
be done afterwards, allow a little extra width. With a good 
saw in good condition and with good wood, the cut is often so 
smooth that planing is not needed. The wood must have one 
straight edge—-a joint-edge (27)—to slide against the gauge. 
This is essential. ? 


c 


S44 ey 


506. - To saw; if the gauge or fence is on the left side of the 
saw, as shown, keep the left hand close to the gauge, with 
some of the fingers hooked over it, while the right hand is at the 
right hand corner of the board, to keep it pushed against the 
gauge. If the gauge is on the right side, the hands will be re- 
versed of course. The edge of the wood must be kept against 
the gauge all the time. Push the wood through, past the saw, 
with the hand, only when there is a wide space between the saw 
and the guide. 


t There is less danger of friction against the saw blade than if a large 
portion of it is above the table, the teeth cut at a better angle, and have less 
tendency to throw the wood. 

2 In an emergency the expedient shown in 603 can be resorted to. 


278 Woodworking 





597. When this space is narrow, push the piece through 
with a stick having a V-shaped notch at the end. Important, 
for safety. 

598. If there is no splitter, and the saw becomes bound by 
the kerf closing, open it with a thin wedge behind the saw. 
If the kerf closes at the beginning of the cut and binds the saw, 
draw the wood back and start again, to enlarge the kerf at the 
end. Sometimes you can reverse the piece and saw better 
from the other end. 






[ auar Ae ey 
——- 


A | % W00D BEING 
~<——SAWEO 
eee ee 


The distance between the saw and the fence should be 
very slighly greater at the rear than at the front, to give clear- 
ance. If the wood pushes through hard for no apparent 
reason, examine this adjustment. 


yarn wood 


meee eee ee 


599. When beginning to saw a long board, raise the end 
you are holding slightly at first, then lower until the board is 
flat on the table. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 279 





600. To stop ripping, or to remove the board instantly, 
raise the end you are holding. 





601. If the wood tends to slip away from the ripping gauge 
when the latter is tilted at a bevel, clamp a piece of waste 
wood on the table so as to form an additional gauge on the 
opposite side of the saw. 

602. Tosplita piece too thick for the saw, 
remove splitter, cut part way through on one 
side, turn the piece over, end for end, and 
saw the remaining thickness. If you cannot 
cut half way through, rip the remaining 
part with the band saw (640), or by hand. 





603. A crooked-edged piece can often be ripped, if neces- 
sary, by running a straight-edged piece through with it. 


280 Woodworking 


604. To saw for a glue-joint use a fine saw in the best 
condition,—either a cross-cut, or a concave-ground mitre, 
or a combination saw. The edge of the wood which comes 
against the ripping gauge must be straight. If not sure of the 
straightness, saw the piece a trifle too wide, reverse the edges, 
saw again, reverse, and saw to width. With care, strong and 
inconspicuous joints can be made quickly with the circular saw. 
See Jointer (654), and Plane (146). When much ripping is 
done, a self-feeding rip-saw is best, for accuracy, speed, and 
safety. 

605. Sawing across the grain. If the cross-cutting gauge 
is on the left of the saw, place the wood in position, hold 
it firmly against the gauge with the left hand, and push gauge 
and wood steadily, but not rapidly, against the saw. At the 
end of the cut, swing the piece cut off away from the saw (as 
shown by the dotted lines) with the right hand, so that it can- 
not be caught by the teeth at the rear. A long piece may have 





to be steadied by the right hand, but do the pushing on the ieft 
side only, or you may bind the saw. Some gauges slide on 
both sides of the saw. Sometimes with large or heavy stock it 
may be necessary to use both hands to keep it firmly against 
the gauge, but stand toward the left side and keep the right 
hand and arm well to one side of the saw. If the gauge is on 
the right side of the saw, reverse the hands of course. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 281 





606. ‘Stop ’’ for duplicating lengths. To cut a number of 
pieces of the same length, use an adjustable sliding attach- 
ment with a stop at the end, fastened to the cross-cutting 
gauge, to give any desired length. If there is no such attach- 
ment for the gauge, a strip of wood with a block nailed to it 
for a stop can be used as shown. 





607. Clearance block for duplicating lengths. A stop 
(clearance block) is placed against the ripping gauge when 
cutting a number of short pieces of equal length. No part 
of the stop should be opposite any part of the saw, but nearer 
the operator, asshown. Slide the wood along the cross-cutting 
gauge until it hits the stop. Then push gauge and wood for- 
ward and cut off the piece. This gives the part cut off ‘‘clear- 
ance.” This is important, for otherwise it is likely to become 
caught between the saw and the ripping gauge and to cause 
trouble. A narrow strip from the end of a wide board can 
be cut safely by the ripping gauge without the stop, but for a 


282 Woodworking 


piece as long as it is wide, or longer, use the stop. Ripping 
gauges with metal stop-attachments are in common use. 

608. A push-piece can sometimes be used, to prevent the 
parts which are cut off catching or being thrown back. 





609. Grooving and Dadoing. Thick saws and special 
cutters (to be used in place of the saw) are made for grooving 
and dadoing. To cut a groove with a common circular saw, 
adjust the saw so that it will cut only the depth required 
for the groove or dado, make a kerf at each side of the groove, 
and remove the wood between by a series of parallel kerfs, or 
with the chisel. Two saws with a collar between can be used. 
Where the size of the groove must be exact, test first on a piece 
of waste wood. Solid grooving saws arealsoused.* The board 


= => fp 


t Where much grooving is to be done, if you have no special cutter, the 
common circular saw can be ‘“‘wabbled.’’ Use a thick saw. Make a pair 
of thin wedge-shaped collars of wood and place one on each side of the saw, 
pointing in opposite directions. This will throw the saw out of its usual 
vertical position on the arbor, asshown. Thus the cutting edge will wabble 
from side to side, as the saw revolves, and will make a wide kerf. The width of 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 283 


must be pressed tightly against the table as well as against 
the gauge. A spring attachment is sometimes used to do this. 


~ SAW 


a 
> 
Ss 
© 
9 
Wy 
a 
R 
3 
o4 
Q 





610. A wooden spring board can be used to keep stock 
against the splitting gauge. 

611. Using dado head. A ‘‘push-block’’ can be used to 
prevent tearing the wood at the edge nearer you. Be sure 
the knives of the cutter head are tightly bolted in place. 


RIPPING 
GAUGE 





612. Cutting a rabbet with circular saw. Adjust the saw 
to project above the table the depth of the rabbet, and set 
ripping-gauge at width of rabbet. Start the machine, and test 
both adjustments by sawing into a waste piece. When cor- 





the cut depends upon the slant of the collars, and can be adjusted by turning 
one of them to alter their relative positions. Test with a piece of waste wood. 

A simple way is to fold the necessary thickness of cardboard or some 
similar substance (A), and insert equal thicknesses above and below. 
This ensures tightness and stiffness of the saw, as the hardest cutting is 
done with the teeth which are on top and beneath when the saw is being 
adjusted. After the saw is fastened in place, a little tightening with the 
wrench will compress the pasteboard wedges more, and thus alter the 
width of the cut. 


284 Woodworking 


rect, saw a kerf for one side of rabbet, as shown. Stop the 
machine, adjust saw and gauge to cut the other side of the 
rabbet, with the wood on edge, as shown, and cut in the same 
way. If the rabbet is to be cut across the end of the wood, use 
a cross-cutting saw. Special cutters can be used. 

613. A rabbet can be cut from one side only, and the 
roughness trimmed with the chisel. 


SSF, 


614. To cut a stop-rabbet, or a stop-groove, or a slot—not 
extending to the ends of the piece, have the saw project above 
the table the depth of the rabbet or groove or slot. Start the 
saw, and test the depth of cut by sawing into a waste piece. 
Stop the machine, and clamp ‘‘stop-blocks’’ to the table (as 
shown below) so that the wood cannot be pushed further for- 
ward or backward than is necessary to make the rabbet. 








615. Start the machine. Hold the piece firmly, place 
the nearer end against the nearer stop, the edge against the 
gauge, and carefully lower the piece onto the saw, until the 
wood lies flat upon the table. Push the piece along against 
the gauge until it reaches the further stop. Then carefully 
raise the nearer end and remove the piece. ‘Trim ends of the 
cuts to shape with chisel. This operation, requiring at least 
partial removal of the safety guard, must be done with care, to 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 285 


prevent the hands being caught by the saw or the wood being 
thrown back.* 





616. Cutting a tenon. Adjust the saw and ripping gauge 
to cut the side of the tenon. Test with a waste piece. Place 
the face side of the piece against the gauge, and saw as shown. 
Then adjust the gauge for the other side, and saw with the 
face-side against the gauge.” Then set the ripping gauge and 
saw, for cutting the shoulders (stop can be used), and saw them. 
If several tenons are to be cut, saw all the sides, shoulders, etc., 


y : 
cs . XN s 
~ “. N ; 


t Such work can be done by marking on the upper surface of the wood 
opposite the ends of the projected rabbet, and also on the gauge, or on the 
bench-top, opposite the points where the edge of the saw rises above the 
. bench-top when adjusted to cut the required depth. Then place the piece 
so that the further marks agree, lower it carefully upon the saw and push it 
along until the nearer marks are opposite one another. But it is safer 
to use a block at each end. Such rabbets or grooves, etc., can be cut with 
a moulding-machine, and also on the circular-saw bench with a special 
cutter of the required shape. 

2 If the stock is accurately sized to thickness, it may not be necessary to 
keep the face side against the gauge to saw the second side, but simply turn 
the other side to the gauge. 


286 Woodworking 


at the same time to save resetting the gauges. Two saws with 
a collar between can be used." 


617. Cutting tapers or wedges. Cut a notch of the shape 
required in a straight-edged piece, fit each piece into this 
notch, and push the two through together. If the tapering 
should come to a point, reverse the arrangement. 





618. Jigs for cutting off corners and cutting fillets. 


t A tenon can be cut with a series of cross-kerfs only, and the rough- 
ness trimmed with chisel. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 287 


619. Roughing out mouldings with the circular saw by a 
series of parallel kerfs. Cutter-heads for such work, to use in 


place of the saw, are made in various shapes and leave the 
surface smooth, which the saw does not. 





620. Partially roughing out circular hollow groove by 
setting the ripping gauge at an angle, as shown. Hollow 
grooves of circular section cannot be cut exactly to the line by 
this method, but much of the wood can be removed. Staves 
may be hollowed in this way with a stiff, sharp saw by passing 
them over the saw at the proper angles. A board can be 





TOP OF SAW TABLE 





clamped across the table for a guide. The shape cut in these 
ways will never be a part of a circle but part of an ellipse, 


288 Woodworking 


because a circle when revolved ever so slightly becomes an 
ellipse. A circular groove can be cut to the line, but leaving 
a rough surface, by a series of parallel kerfs, as shown in 619. 
A hand plane (core-box plane) is made for such work. 





621. Convex curves can be cut approximately, if necessary, 
by making a series of straight cuts. This requires care, and 
should be done only by an experienced operator. 





622. Circular segments can be fitted by gauges for the 
purpose. 
623. By turning the gauges or tilting the saw as may be 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 289 


required, compound angles can be sawed, and many machines 
are equipped with graduated scales and adjustments by which 
almost any desired shape can be cut. Hopper joints (560), 
and similar angular shapes, can be cut by making the proper 
adjustments of the gauges and saw or table-top. Operations 
of this kind should be learned from the saw which is in use, 
under the direction of a competent operator. Ifa machine has 
no graduated adjustments, a great variety of angles can be cut 
by contriving forms or jigs to hold or control the wood so that 
the desired shape can be cut. 

















624. Small portable machines, of various designs, to be run 
by the electric lighting current, are in successful use. While 
large and heavy sawing should be done with large machines, a 
great part of the work of the beginner, amateur, and general 
student can be handled satisfactorily at comparatively slight 
expense with little machines of this type. They are in no 
sense toys, but will do small work economically, even where 
large machines are installed. 

625. Avoidance of danger. Always use safety guard and 
splitter, except for the few operations which require their 
removal. A small cross-cut saw is safest for the beginner. 
The saw should be sharp. Many accidents are caused by dull 
saws. Roll up shirt sleeves. Start the saw yourself, to avoid 
its being started before you are ready. Keep mind and eyes 
wholly on the sawing. If you cannot do this, stop the machine 


290 Woodworking 


and wait until you can concentrate on the work. Push stock 
clear past the saw and off the bench, and keep the saw-table 
clear. Bring stock back at one side, never above the saw. 
Never reach over the saw while it is in motion. Form the 
habit of standing out of line when there is a possibility of 
pieces being thrown. Never lower the face to sight along the 
work while sawing. Have some one help you when ripping 
or cross-cutting very long stock. The rear of the saw is fully 
as dangerous as the front unless protected. Sawing stock free- 
hand, without fence or gauge, is dangerous and should be 
done only by an experienced operator. Use extra care with 
warped or winding stock. See that the floor is not slippery 
around the saw-bench. For narrow splitting, use a push-stick. 
In case of trouble, immediately shut off the power.” 





626. Swing saw. Used to cut off long stock before dressing 
to exact dimensions. It is so balanced that the saw, when not 
in use, is behind the rear edge of the table, leaving the table 
clear. Always use a good safety-guard, and see that there is 
a device to prevent the saw from swinging out beyond the 


* The avoidance of danger can be taught by the use of adummy. For 
example, erect a wide board in front of the saw. Stand safely to one side 
or behind the saw (as the case may require), allow a board to be caught 
by the teeth of the saw and projected toward the dummy operator. In 
the same way, allow small pieces to be caught at the rear of the saw, etc. 
The result of such demonstrations is more impressive than warnings. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 2091 


front edge of the table. If equipment be limited, the work 
of this saw must be done with the bench-saw or by hand. 
There are various forms of swing-saws. The details of con- 
struction, adjustments, etc., should be learned from the ma- 
chine you are to use. 





627. To saw, place the lumber on the long table, move it 
to the right or left to the desired point, using the scale on the 
table. To make the cut, pull the saw toward you. Because 
the saw revolves toward you, pull it steadily, but not quickly 
nor with a jerk, or it may cut into the wood so fast as to become 
stuck. The machine shown has the handle on the left side. 
In this case, stand so as to grasp the handle firmly with the 
right hand. If the handle be on the right side of the saw, grasp 
it with the left hand. 


With a little ingenuity all the accidents likely to occur can be actually 
shown. For example, a rag hanging from a dummy arm and caught by 
the saw teeth will show that no human reaction can be quick enough to 
avoid injury. Safety guards may be painted red. 

‘The most usual accidents are caused by pieces being thrown back by 
the saw while ripping stock, strains in the lumber, resulting in the stock 
warping itself against the saw; knots or loose slivers being jarred against 
the saw by the vibration of the saw table or otherwise, and thrown against 
the operator; by the operator reaching over the revolving saw for stock 
and dropping or dragging the stock on the saw; sawing small pieces without 


292 Woodworking 


628. Small portable machines, operating from a light 
socket, for various fine operations like mitring, but based on 
the principle of the common swing-saw, are in use. 


BAND SAW 


629. Band saw. Used for both straight and curved work. 
The blade is an endless steel ribbon, with teeth on the edge, 
passing around two wheels, which are revolved rapidly. Large 
saws cut logs into lumber economically. The thin blade makes 
a narrower kerf than the circular saw, and saves lumber, time, 
and power. 





PORTABLE BAND SAW 


630. With the band saw used in shops the wood is fed by 
hand, and rests upon a table through the centre of which 


a guide and getting the fingers in contact with the saw; by slipping and 
falling on to the saw; by defective balancing arrangements on circular 
swing saws (626); lack of a device to prevent saw swinging beyond front edge 
of the table; by an occasional saw breaking while in use, due to same being 
defective; by the saw striking metal; using cracked saws, etc.’—Sizmonds 
Manufacturing Co. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 293 


the saw passes. The power is applied to the lower wheel. If 
the wheels revolve at perhaps 500 or 600 R.P.M., with the thin 
blade cutting easily and continuously and making a narrow 
kerf, it is evident that it is a very efficient and economical 
machine. 

631. Always use safety-guards, although the band saw is 
a comparatively safe machine.* The table can be tilted for 
sawing at an angle. The wheels must be properly aligned. The 
upper one can be raised or lowered to fit the length of the saw 
and to give it the right tension, and can also be tilted by a 
tracking device so that the saw, as it passes over the wheels, 
will ‘“‘track”’ properly. Such adjustments are best learned 
from the machine you are to use. When not in use slacken 
the saw. 

632. The teeth point downward and, with the small saws 
for shop use, are set (100, etc.) to give clearance, as with the 
circular and common hand saws. The blades for such machines 
range from 7/3’ to 13/,’’ wide. The width must be adapted 
to the work. A 3/,,’’ blade is as wide as should be used for 
sharp curves, but for sweeping curves or for straight work a 
wider blade is better. A wide set makes a rougher cut than a 


t “ Accidents most common on band saws are those resulting where the 
stock is not securely held, with a consequent kinking and breaking of the 
-saw. Severe injury often results from accidents brought about by the 
operator trying to remove waste pieces near the saw with the hand, or 
attempting to stop the wheel with hand, foot or stick when the power is 
shut off; attempting to adjust the gauge when the saw is running 
or the band flying off unprotected wheels in case of breakage. 
Other accidents are due to workmen’s clothing becoming caught in the 
spokes or on the band of an unprotected wheel. Accidents are frequent 
through the carelessness of the operator getting his hand against the saw 
at the rear of the table, or sometimes getting the hands and head above 
the portion of the saw over the gauge. ... Safety engineers agree that 
practically all of these accidents can be prevented by enclosing the upper 
and lower wheels with either a wire mesh guard or a solid enclosure; also 
the cutting edge of the saw above the table at the rear, as well as that part 
above the guide.’’—Simonds Manufacturing Co. 


204 Woodworking 


slight set, but cuts a sharper curve. The teeth are filed, set, 
etc., on the same principles as other saws already described. 
Filing, setting, brazing, etc., of band saws is best learned 
from a competent instructor. 





633. Showing saw and its adjustable guide just above the 
table. The guide must neither bind the saw nor cause it to 
become twisted. If the saw bears against the guide it is likely 
to cause case hardening.* 

634. Before beginning to saw, look the machine over. 
Lower the upper guide close to the work. Turn the wheels 
over by hand to see that the saw ‘“‘tracks’”’ properly on the 
circumference of the wheels, and runs easily between the 
guides. 





635. To saw, start the machine, wait until it has picked 
up speed, hold the wood lightly (not rigidly but securely), and 
guide it gently and easily against the teeth. Feed the wood to 
the saw only so fast as the teeth will cut it easily and freely. 


t ‘ The back guide should never be so close that the saw will come in con- 
tact with it. It isonly placed there as a matter of precaution.’’—Simonds 
Manufacturing Co. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 295 


Avoid reaching around the saw while it is in motion. Do not 
try to turn the wood very quickly so as to twist the blade, 
nor to cut curves too sharp for the saw. To remove the wood 
while the saw is in the kerf, stop the machine, or saw out 
through the waste wood. Pulling toward you may pull the 
saw off the wheels. 





636. Use a wide saw for a sweeping curve (A) and for 
straight work. When the edge must be left as smooth as 
possible, saw with the grain of the part to be kept. Use a 
narrow saw for a sharp curve (B). To cut a sharp curve 
with a saw too wide (C), as is sometimes unavoidable, first run 
past the sharp curve, and then work by short cuts up to the 
line; but it is better to use a narrow saw for sharp curves. 





637. Shapes like the leg shown are best sawed from a 
solid square post. First mark the pattern and saw from one 
side (A). Then turn half over, mark the pattern again, and 


206 Woodworking 


saw to final shape. The second marking will be on a curved 
surface, therefore the pattern must be drawn directly on the 
wood or projected from the pattern first used. That is, a 
flexible pattern cannot be bent to fit the curved surface, for 
it would give a different curve from that already sawed. 


ee 


638. The waste pieces can often be used to block up the 
piece for the second sawing (B), and sometimes can be used 
as blocking when the work is assembled with clamps. Such 
forms are often built up by gluing on pieces (C). This takes 
more time but less wood, and is usually the cheapest way. 
A solid piece is better in most cases, certainly for the beginner. — 
See 439, 540, 541, 754. 

639. Using a dull saw, so that you have to force the wood 
against it, is working the saw beyond its proper capacity and 
is apt to cause trouble. 

640. Re-sawing lumber into thinner stock is done with 
band saws arranged for the purpose. Attempting to re-saw 
wide stock with a common band saw is not to be recommended. 
One way to re-saw stock, if not too wide, is to split it from each 
edge with the circular saw (602) as deeply as the saw will cut, 
and then saw the part in the middle with the band saw (or by 
hand if necessary), the circular-saw kerfs helping to make 
the band saw cut accurately. 

641. Small portable band saws are made, to run by the 
lighting circuit. 


JIG SAW 


642. Jig saw or scroll saw. Although superseded by the 
band saw for most work, the jig saw is necessary for cutting 
inside open work, ‘“‘coring work’’—which cannot be done with 
the band saw. The table can tilt for beveled sawing. As the 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 207 


jig saw has a reciprocating, up-and-down, motion and cuts on 
the down stroke only, it is not so efficient as the band saw, 





which runs so rapidly and cuts continuously. A jig saw will, 
however, do most of the curved work of the beginner or ama- 
teur easily, cheaply, and well. It is easy to keep in order, 
uses but little power, and is safe. The teeth must point down- 
ward. The tension should be such that the saw is tightly 
strained, but not over strained. Relieve the tension when not 
in use. If the tension is not automatically adjusted, test by 
hand, The size of the saw, etc., must depend upon the work, 
as with the band saw (632). 

643. To saw, lower the guide near the wood. The sawing 
is done as with the band saw (635) or the hand scroll saw. 
Feed the work only so fast as the saw will cut easily and 
freely and without being bent or twisted. Avoid trying to 
turn very quickly when cutting sharp curves (636). A blower 
can be used to keep sawdust away from the line. 

Excessively high speed is not an advantage with a jig saw. 


298 Woodworking 


The old-fashioned form with no upright post, the upper part 
being fastened to the ceiling, is sometimes desirable, because 
large work can be swung around and sawed in any direction, 
which cannot always be done with the band saw or jig-saw 
having an upright post. 


644. Sawing inside openwork. First bore a hole, unfasten 
saw, pass through hole, re-fasten, and saw to the line. 





645. A foot-power scroll saw is excellent for the beginner or 
the amateur, is safe, comparatively cheap, and very efficient. 


PLANER 


646. Planer, Essential to a completely equipped shop, 
but can be omitted from a limited outfit much better than the 
circular saw, band saw, or jointer; and is of minor importance 
to the beginner or amateur because stock can be planed 
(or bought already planed) of any desired thickness almost 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 299 


anywhere. After learning the adjustments from the machine 
itself, it is not hard to operate. 





647. Direct motor-driven single surfacer. 


CUTTER HEAD ». CHIPS 
Le CHIPBREAKER 


wl 


PRESSURE BAR 















oO 
Ss 





TOCHK BEING PLANEO 
Vin 





648. Diagram showing action of single surfacer. You push 
the wood between the two feed rolls (A) and (B), which revolve 
in the directions shown. The corrugations of the upper roll (A) 
move the wood over the bed of the machine, under the chip- 
breaker, to the knives of the cutter-head, which plane little 
chips from the surface. These are discharged above the cutter- 
head as shown, and can be removed by a blower. The board 
next passes under an adjustable pressure-bar which presses 
it down upon the bed. Then the two smooth rolls (C) and (D), 
carry it through. The single surfacer planes the upper side of 
the wood, therefore if one side has been planed, or is flatter 
than the other, that side is placed down. This type of planer 
smoothes the wood, but does not make it flat. A warped 


300 Woodworking 


board will still be warped after planing, although slight irregu- 
larities will be straightened. To produce flat surfaces, one side 
must be made flat before planing. It can be made so with the 
Jointer (654) or by hand, if necessary.” With a double surfacer 
both sides are planed at once, and some machines plane all 


four surfaces. 


649. The close setting of the knives in the cutter-head and ~ 
the nearness of the chip-breaker produce a similar result to 
that caused by the cap-iron and the front edge of the mouth 
of a hand plane (133, footnote). 

650. The thickness of the planing is regulated by raising 
or lowering the table on which the wood is carried. If stock is 
to be made much thinner, pass it through the machine several 
times, planing equal amounts from each side to lessen sub- 
sequent warping (747). If stock is of uneven thickness, the 
first planing must be gauged by the thickest part. If several 
pieces differ in thickness, plane the thickest first. Take very 
light cuts at first, until you have learned by experience how 
to handle the different kinds of wood, rates of speed, etc. 
Feed the wood on a diagonal when you can. 

651. Adjustments, planer-marks, etc. The adjustments 
and details of different machines vary, therefore they are best 
learned from the machine which you are to use, under the 


t The rolls should bear on the wood only enough to carry it along. 
The machine shown will plane material from 1/16” to 734" thick. Single 
pieces 13’’ long, or pieces 3’’ long, fed one after another, can be planed. 
The rates of speed range from 20 to 60 feet per minute. H.P., 10 to 20. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 301 


direction of a competent operator.’ The revolving knives 
make little waves or undulations on the surface. These planer- 
marks (137) must be removed, for nice work, by hand planing 
or by sanding or scraping. Ascertain how short stock can be 
planed by the machine you are to use.? The planer is probably 
not more dangerous than most machinery, but it is well not 
to stand behind the wood being planed. 





652. A piece can be planed to taper lengthways by placing 
it on top of another piece of the required taper and running 
both through together, making a series of light cuts; or by 
attaching the piece to a form so that one end will be higher 
than the other. To plane tapering crossways, or from edge 
to edge, make a form or taper-board, by attaching a strip of 
the thickness of the desired taper to the underside of a board 
at the edge, and then planing the top surface down, as shown. 
When turned over this makes a form to hold the wood for 


t The machine should be free from vibration, the feed should be steady, 
and the knives must describe a small circle at high speed to ensure the best 
work. Soft woods can be fed faster than hard. Smoothness of surface, asa 
general principle, is in proportion to slowness of feed and lightness of cut. 

The in-feed roll is made up of sections 1’’ wide which yield to the vari- 
ations in the stock being planed, and adapt themselves to irregularities of 
glued-up work and to narrow pieces. This tends to prevent pieces being 
thrown toward the operator. 

2 A short piece can be pushed through with another piece so that the 


rolls can carry it along. 


302 Woodworking 


planing, which should be done with light cuts. A stick can 
be made octagonal by placing it in a cradle or form (155) and 
running both through together. 

653. Grinding, setting, and truing the knives are now done 
by motor-driven devices. With old-fashioned machines, the 
edges of the knives are adjusted to be parallel by placing 
blocks of wood of equal thickness upon the bed below the 
knives. 


JOINTER 


654. Jointer. Very important for planing and squaring 
edges and truing flat surfaces. Automatic safety guards should 
always be used. 





655. The wood is held against the gauge and passed along 
the table or bed of the machine by hand, over the rapidly 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 303 


revolving knives, which are similar to those of the surfacer 
(649). The jointer does much of the work formerly done with 
hand planes. Also used to plane joints for gluing (see also 604) 
and for other operations. A true joint-edge and working-face 
(27) are quickly made. It is not a hard machine to use after 
learning the adjustments, but these must be skilfully made. 
The bed or table is in two parts. These can be raised or 
lowered independently. 


GAUGE OR FENCE 


REAR OR OUTFEED TABLE FRONT OR INFEED TABLE 
cu 


TTER 
HEAD 


656. The rear or out-feed table supports the wood after it 
has been planed and should be on a level with the edges of 
the cutting knives when they are at the highest point. This 
is essential. 









oS ee EES eee 


——— = 


OUTFEED TABLE // (> 
INFEED TABLE 








. TRAIGHT- EDGE OF WOOD 
OUTFEED TABLE 
(eo) 







657. To test this, lay a wooden straight-edge on the rear 
or out-feed table so as to project over the knives, and revolve 
the latter slowly by hand. If they do not just touch the 
straight-edge without cutting it, raise or lower the rear table 
until they do. Another way is to plane from the end of a piece 
for a short distance, and see whether the planed surface fits 
exactly upon the rear table. 

658. To use the machine, after seeing that the rear or 
out-feed table and knives are adjusted, as just shown, lower 
the front or in-feed table to the depth you wish to cut. Ifa 
square cut is wanted, test position of fence with try-square. 
See that the safety guard is in position, stand at the side of 
the in-feed table, with the left foot in advance, hold face-side 
or -edge of the wood firmly against the gauge, and begin to 


304 Woodworking 








push the stock over the knives. The adjustments can first be 
tested by running a waste piece over the tables. Push with the 





fingers, not with the whole hand, and keep them on top of 
the wood, not over the sides or ends, except when necessary. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 305 


In planing flat surfaces, feed diagonally when you can. As 
soon as you have passed the wood well by the cutters, keep the 
planed part pushed down flat on the rear (out-feed) table, 
which is necessary in order that the surface planed may be 
straight or flat throughout. Care must be taken in planing 
stock so narrow that there is danger in holding it down with 


al 


the hand. You can use a push-stick. Use different parts of 
the cutters for edge planing to avoid dulling one portion of 
the knives more than the rest. 

659. To true stock which is not flat. If warped or crooked, 
place hollow side down. By holding the piece down with the 
palms of the hands on the rear table and rocking it slightly, 
you can tell where the highest parts are and can plane these 
off first as you pass the piece over the knives. If thin or flexible 
stock is not flat, press down lightly while planing, to avoid 
flattening with the hand, which would result in the surface 
being warped or winding after planing. Short pieces should 
be planed in some other way, as there is danger in passing 
them over the cutters. 


REAR TABLE Co ) FRONT TABLE 


SREAR TABLE _/, 
co} 
AN 

660. To plane tapering, as in case of table legs, the rear 
table can be raised so that the depth of cut will gradually 
diminish. Clamp a stop on the in-feed table at the right 
distance for the taper; or, if you wish to taper part way only, 
support the rear end of the wood by a piece of waste. Repeat 
the planing until enough has been cut. 


306 Woodworking 


SY Em 


661. To taper wide stock crossways (from edge to edge), 
set the gauge one-half the width of the taper from the edge 
of the table, and set the in-feed table to cut one-half the depth 
of the desired taper. When cut a wide shallow rabbet is the 
result. Finally, move gauge back, and plane the piece in the 
position shown until the taper is formed. 





662. The fence can tip. Chamfering, beveling, rabbeting, 3 
tonguing, grooving, beading, tenoning, and moulding, in 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 307 


various forms, can be done with different attachments and 
cutters.’ 


t The edges of the knives must be parallel to the axis of the cylinder to 
which they are attached, as well as in line with the rear table; and the 
plane (flat surface) of the front table must be parallel with that of the rear 
table. Setting the knives requires care and should be learned from an 
experienced operator. Be sure that all set-screws, bolts, or other fasten- 
ings are tight, for serious injury can result from loose parts. Cylindrical 
cutter heads are used for safety. Modern jointers, like planers, have 
attachments by which the knives can be properly ground, set, etc. 





A rabbet of moderate depth can be cut by moving the gauge to a dis- 
tance from the edge equal to the width of the desired rabbet, as 
shown. 

Tenons can also be made by fastening a stop to the out-feed table to 


308 Woodworking 


663. Small portable jointers to connect with an electric 
light socket will do most of the work of the beginner and 





amateur at comparatively slight expense. They also save 
much time, labour, and expense, where large machines are 
installed. 


SANDING MACHINES 


664. Sanding machines. The large drum sander is used 
for smoothing large flat surfaces. The drums are covered with 
sandpaper, and the wood is passed through the machine as 
through the planer. With a triple drum sander, the first drum 
carries coarse sandpaper; the second, a medium grade; and 
the third, fine paper for the final finish. With coarse paper 
only, glue-joints in hard, fine-grained woods can be made. 

665. With small drum sanders the wood is passed over 
the table by hand, and sanded by a revolving sand-covered 


. | 
=. ae 


REAR TABLE * 





FRONT TABLE 


limit the length cut, and then planing successive cuts until the tenon is 
reduced to the desired thickness, as shown. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 309 





drum underneath. Such machines are comparatively cheap 
and do effective work. Even home-made ones do good service. 





310 Woodworking 


666. Showing principle of the disk sander. The disk is 
faced with sandpaper. When worn out, this is replaced by a 
new disk of sandpaper, easily glued on.’ With some machines 
the paper is held by a band around the rim. The table tilts 






Angular 
Sanding 






Dimension 
Work 





Circular 
Sanding 


tIn sticking a disk to the disk wheel, rotate the disk to spread the 
cement evenly. Water-glass is sometimes used. Leave under pressure 
for some hours, to set firmly. Soak off old disks in hot water. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 311 


and the gauge can be set at a bevel. Angular and curved 
surfaces, as well as flat, can be sanded.‘ Small stock for built- 
up work can be prepared quickly for gluing, and many shaping 
and fitting operations done. Disk machines are made in 
numerous sizes. Large disks are advantageous, because the 
sandpaper near the circumference does the most work, there- 
fore you can do more with a large disk than with a small one. 
Many small objects can be prepared for gluing economically 
by disk grinders, using waste scraps; and, after gluing, can 
be shaped by the grinders. 

667. Spindle sanders are used for curved and irregular, and 
even flat surfaces. They oscillate up and down, and are made 
to tilt also. See 666. 





SAS 


668. Hand-block belt sander. This type of machine is 
very useful, handles a great variety of work, and has many 





1 Jigs for sanding special shapes can easily be contrived. For example, a 
jig for a curve, as shown. 


312 Woodworking 


advantages. The operation is simple. The band-covered belt 
is brought into contact with the work by means of a hand- 
block or pad. This block-pad can be shaped to fit irregular 
forms. The table beneath, which supports the work, can be 
moved, as may be required. The sanding is done with the 
grain of the wood. Machines of this type are very versatile, 
because of the flexibility of the belt, and the various methods 
by which both uniform and odd-shaped work can be handled. 
Small shapes can be sanded at the ends of the machine. Such 
machines may require from 1%4 to 3 H. P. Belt machines are 
made in different forms and with varying details, which can 
be readily learned from the machine you are to use.* 


BORING MACHINES 


669. Boring machines. In the industries boring is chiefly 
done by a great variety of machines which bore vertically or 
horizontally, by boring attachments to other machines, and 
by the use of jigs for special purposes. Power borers should 
have safety guards. The tables which hold the work are 
adjustable, and the boring is controlled by hand or foot. The 
face side or joint-edge of the work is kept against the gauge 
or fence. 

670. In the vertical machines, the motor can be mounted 
directly on the boring spindle and both be raised and lowered 
together, according to the requirements of the work. The 
table, which supports the wood, can be raised or lowered 
according to the thickness of the stock to be bored, and can 
be tilted. It can have slots through which various kinds of 
fixtures or gauges can be clamped. The head carrying the 


t For the ordinary work, belts of paper are used; about 6” being a good 
width. For irregular shapes, cloth belts can be used of a width to suit the 
work, The length of the belts gives great flexibility, and also keeps the belt 
from heating. To join the ends of a belt, remove the sand for a short 
distance from one end, glue, lap, and clamp until dry. A belt-splicing 
contrivance can also be used. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 313 





motor slides up and down in ways. Adjustable stops regulate 
the depth of hole and the height to which the head returns. 
The bit is brought down to the work by foot pressure on the 
treadle. By releasing the foot pressure the head is raised and 
the bit withdrawn from the hole. 

671. To bore, insert and tighten bit, adjust table vertically 
according to the thickness of the wood to be bored, and see 
that the spur of the bit centres on the right point for the hole. 
Start the power, and by using the foot-control lower the bit 
steadily until the hole is bored. If the hole is to go only part 
way through, a stop can be set to bore only to the required 
depth. Lower the bit, when not in motion, at the edge of 
the wood and then set the stop. If exact depth is important, 
test by boring into a waste piece. 

While the general principle is similar in all boring machines, 
they differ in arrangement, adjustments, and the various 
details. You should learn these from the machine you are to 
use. A horizontal boring machine works on the same general 
principle as a vertical machine. Horizontal boring attach- 


314 Woodworking 


ments for circular saw benches are in common use. Cutters 
for routing, core-box work, etc., can also be used with boring 
machines. A post borer, or a bench drill, is useful within the 
limits of its capacity. Portable boring machines driven by 
electricity are made to hold in the hand, so as to bore in any 
position or direction. A safety guard for the bit is desirable. 


LATHE 


672. Lathe. Most woodworking machines are of recent 
invention, but the lathe in its primitive forms dates from 
antiquity. Woodturning is a trade in itself, and is much 
better learned from a practical and experienced turner than 
from a book. All woodworkers should, however, understand 
the general principles of turning and the elementary operations, 
which are all that can be included in a general handbook. 
Turning requires concentrated attention and freedom from 
interruption, both on account of the work and to avoid 
accident. 





FRONT ELEVATION OF AMERICAN SPEED LATHE 
MOTOR DRIVEN " 








673. A typical illustration of a lathe. Although the details 
of different machines vary, the general principle is the same 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 315 


in all. For the common forms of turning, the wood is held 
between two points or centres, and is rapidly revolved toward 
the turner, who holds the edge of a tool against it, and thus 
cuts it into the desired shape. 


CONE FULLEY 
TIGHT ANO LOOSE FULLEVS 









COUNTER SHAFT 


LIVE CENTAE 


: 
* Cone FULLEY 
' 
TEE (TEST 


QEAO CENTAE 


674. Diagram showing general arrangement of a common 
lathe driven by belt from a countershaft.’ 

675. One of the centres (the one on the left) between which 
the stick is held, has spurs which enter the wood, so that when 
this centre is revolved the wood is also revolved. This is some- 


t When the belt is on the smallest step of the cone-pulley of the lathe it will 
be on the largest step of the driving-pulley on the counter-shaft above. 
This gives the highest speed, for when a belt runs from a large wheel to a 
smaller the speed is increased in proportion to the sizes of the wheels. For 
the slowest speed put the belt on the smallest step of the countershaft 

pulley and the largest of the lathe pulley, for the speed is decreased when a 
~ small wheel is connected with a large one. Small work requires a higher 
speed than large. The ‘‘swing”’ of a lathe means the diameter of work 
which can be turned with it. 


316 Woodworking 


times called the “‘live’”’ centre. The other centre is merely 
to hold the other end of the wood in place, and does not turn 





LIVE CENTRE DEAD CENTRE 


with it. This is sometimes called the ‘“‘dead”’ centre. A mov- 
able tee-rest for the tool is fastened in front of the wood, so 
that the tool may be held securely and steadily (673). 

676. Clear pine is the best wood to begin with, though 
whitewood or other similar wood will do. Select pieces free 
from cracks, checks, or shakes, which might cause the wood to 
split while being turned. The operator should face the light, 
and it is well to have it from the right also. Different turners 
frequently have different ways of doing work and there is 
much opportunity for thought in so handling the tools as to 
do the cleanest and best work in the least time. Therefore 
carefully observe the effect of holding the cutting edges in 
different positions so as to learn to do as much clean cutting, 
and as little scraping, as possible. Handle the tools lightly 
and freely. Do not press hard and long at any one spot, on 
account of the friction. 

















677. To turn acylinder. The tools needed are the turning 
gouge and the turning chisel. The gouge is usually ground 
with the edge rounded to correspond with the degree of curva- 
ture of the tool. For roughing out, however, it is sometimes 
ground squarely across. The chisel is ground on both sides 
and is usually a skew-chisel also. Experienced turners, how- 
ever, are apt to grind with very little skew or squarely across. 
First, get out a piece of wood with the circular saw about 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 317 


2” by 2”’ by 10’’.? Find the centre of each end by drawing 
diagonals, or as shown below.? With hardwood a small hole 
can be started for the spur. Put a few drops of oil on the end 
of the piece where the dead centre will be inserted. Move the 
tail-stock (674) up toward the head-stock until the wood is 
held between the two, centring it by the marks just made upon 
the ends. Screw up the tail-stock until the spurs of the live 
centre are firmly fixed in the wood and the dead centre also 
forced well into the end. The wood must revolve freely and 
at the same time be securely held. Test this by first revolving 
by hand. Adjust the top of the tee-rest to be about level with 
the centres (673).3 Fasten it as close to the wood as you can 
without danger of striking, before starting the lathe. Do not 
change it while the lathe is moving. 


t The exact size is immaterial,—134’’ square will do—but for the follow- 
ing elementary exercises this is a suitable size and can be economically cut 
from a 2” plank. 


? 


2 The centre can be found by using compasses as shown, or a gauge. 
This way can also be used for irregular shaped pieces, as the compasses will 
‘ trace a small copy of the outline. The experienced turner centres small 
work by eye, gives the wood a few revolutions and, if necessary, makes a 
slight cut with a tool to detect any inaccuracy in the centring. By stop- 
ping the lathe and by tapping, or a slight movement of the piece, he adjusts 
ittoruntrue. If the wood becomes overheated at any time, stop the lathe 
and oil again or loosen the wood slightly. Do not oil while the lathe is in 
motion. 

3 The rest can be a little below the centres for small work, but for large 
work should be somewhat above the centres. This depends somewhat 
upon your own height. 


318 Woodworking 





678. Start the machine slowly.* Let it get up speed before 
beginning to work. Take a position with the feet spread so 
that you can stand firmly. It is usual to stand with the left 
side somewhat turned toward the lathe, and to keep the right 
hand, which holds the tool handle, against the body. 


™ The highest speed is usually right for these small elementary exercises 
but use the slow speed for the first roughing into cylindrical shape. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 310 


lS SgceSEED 


679. First rough out the shape with a gouge. The left hand 
can be held as shown, or underneath as in 682. Begin some 
distance from the extreme end of the wood, lest the tool 
become caught. Begin with the edge of the tool so placed 
that it would cut at a tangent to the upper part of the cylinder, 
as shown. Then carefully raise the handle until the edge 
begins to cut. After dipping down into the wood in this way, 
move the tool along a little and dip down again, making a 
succession of cuts as shown at the right. If the cuts are made 
nearer together the bulk of the corners will be roughed off. 


A 

680. Then begin at the right-hand end and move the tool 
sideways back and forth along the stick until it becomes 
cylindrical. Stop the machine and move the tool rest to 
about */s’’ from the wood. Then start again. In smoothing 
with the gouge place the tool at first so that the basil and not 
the cutting-edge bears on the wood and then carefully raise 
the right hand a very little until the edge begins to cut. The 
tool can be turned over slightly so as to cut with either side 
of the edge, as shown, rather than with the extreme end, thus 
making a smooth shearing cut (77). 


681. Test the diameter with calipers (44), holding them 
lightly as shown, and not pressing them down over the wood. 


320 Woodworking 


Leave the piece a little larger than required, to allow for 
finishing with the chisel. 


Me 
PANO 


682. Place the chisel as shown, so that it projects a little 
over the surface. It is well to begin a little way from the end 
of the piece lest the edge of the tool catch. Then draw the 
tool back a little until the lower part of the basil rests on the 
wood. Hold the tool on the rest with the left hand. The left 
hand is sometimes laid over the chisel in the position shown 
in 680. It is well to keep the forefinger of the left hand hooked 
under the tee-rest, as this gives firm control of the tool. Then 
raise the handle slowly a very little, and to the left, until the 
edge begins to cut. Move the tool steadily to the right, making 
a smooth shearing cut (77). Keep the basil bearing on the 
wood, but with the upper point of the chisel clear above the 
surface.’ The tool can now be turned the other way and 
the cutting done in the opposite direction. You can sway 
the body, but keep the feet firmly planted as at first. As 
you thus trim to the exact diameter, test. with calipers. 


1 If you keep the basil on the wood, as at A, a very slight raising of the 
handle will cause the cutting edge to begin to cut, while a very slight 
movement of the handle downward will raise the cutting edge from the 
surface, when the cutting will stop. The heel of the basil acts as a kind of 
pivot, so that you can control the cutting edge by a very slight movement of 
the handle. If you attempt to work with the basil free from the surface, as 
at B, you cannot properly control the edge, which may catch or bite or the 
tool be thrown. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 321 
aS 


683. The hand is often held around the piece.’ After 
moving the switch, or the “‘shipper,’’ to stop the machine, 
lay the hand on the pulley, not on the wood, to bring it to a 


standstill. 


684. A tapering form is turned in a similar manner. Rough 
to shape as already shown. Finish with the skew-chisel, 
working from the middle toward each end. Begin to cut with 
the heel of the chisel, continuing with the lower part of the 
basil as already shown. If the taper is cut wholly with the 
heel, there is danger of cutting too deeply. 





685. To cut a cylinder with one or more steps. First turn 
a cylinder. Near the middle lay off a space, 2’’ for example, 
with rule and pencil. 





686. Hold the chisel (skew or square-edged) with the angle 
nearly touching the wood, raise the handle slightly and care- 


t With long slender work a piece of leather wrapped around the hand will 
prevent burning and the tool can be held against a nick cut in the leather. 
A back-rest for the work to bear against is sometimes used. 


322 Woodworking 


fully so that the corner of the tool will dip down into the wood, 
at each end of the 2’”’ space, and cut a groove about */16’ deep. 





687. As there is but little wood to be removed it can be 
done with the chisel as shown. In cutting with the angle of 
the chisel next the shoulder, lower the handle slightly lest the 
tool cut too deeply.* 





689. Cut down just outside the lines with the parting tool, 
held as shown to a depth of 14”. 


690. Instead, a V-shaped groove can be cut with the chisel, 
first cutting straight down, as shown at the left, and then 
slantingly, as at the right. 


t In smoothing the horizontal part where there is a shoulder, place the 
chisel at an angle similar to that shown, with the heel of the tool pointing 


toward the shoulder. Then raise the handle and use the tool as already 
described. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 323 





691. Turn to the required dimensions as before, first with 
the gouge, turning it when near the shoulder so that it will 
cut as shown. Finish with the chisel as before. See that the 
ends of the shoulders are smoothed accurately to the lines 
with the chisel, as already shown in 687. It is well to practise 
with a variety of similar steps. The exact dimensions are not 
important, as the object of such exercises is to get a good 
working understanding of the process. 

692. To cut a V-shaped groove. Place the skew-chisel as 
already shown, raise the handle and make a cut with the heel 
of the tool. Then cut one side of the V with the heel of the 
chisel, the edge being turned from the vertical of course. 
To make the cut, slide the tool a little way up on the work 
and then raise the handle, which will cause the heel of the 
tool to dip down and make the cut, keeping the basil bearing 
on the wood as already shown, to give you control of the 
cutting edge. In all these operations the entire edge must 
not cut, or you may lose command of the tool. 





693. To cut a half-bead. After turning a cylinder, cut in 
with the chisel as shown. 





694. Then, place the tool as shown at the left, turn it to 
cut the half-bead, raising the handle gradually in a curve and 
pushing the tool forward as is necessary. Remember to let 


324 Woodworking 


the basil bear on the wood as a guide. At the end try to cut one 
shaving from the whole surface. To cut a half-bead in the 
opposite direction, reverse the positions and movements. This 
exercise can well be repeated with half-beads of different 
sizes. 





695. Toturn beads. Lay out the spaces for the beads on 
a cylinder with compasses (as shown at the right), or with 
rule and chisel, making a very slight cut.* Pencil marks can 
also be made for the centres of the beads. Cut down between 
the beads with the chisel as shown above. Then proceed as 
in turning two half-beads. Practise with beads of different 
sizes and also try to make a row of uniform size. 





696. To cut off a cylinder or other shape at a given length. 
Lay off the required length with rule and pencil, leaving a 
little space at each end,—enough at the live end that the tools 
cannot strike the spur when cutting in. Cut in carefully with 
the parting tool a little outside of the line marked. Start 
with edge of the tool slightly above the center. Raise the 
handle very slightly as the edge nears the middle of the 
cylinder, in order to keep the cut as nearly tangential as at 
first; or hold a 14” scraping tool as shown in 689, with the 


« Where many pieces have to be marked alike, a gauge can be made by 
driving brads in the edge of a strip of wood at the required points and 
sharpening the projecting ends. Holding this gauge lightly against the 
revolving wood will mark the spaces. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 325 


basil down. Make successive cuts lightly to make the opening 
cut a little wider than the tool to avoid friction and continue 
until there is only enough wood left to avoid danger of break- 
ing. Or cut entirely with the turning chisel, first straight 
down, and then slantingly as shown, thus making a V-shaped 
cut and trimming thin shavings from the end of the part 
to be kept, until the line is reached and the piece almost cut 
through. In trimming an end with the chisel the basil should 
be kept nearly flat on the end surface, then a slight move- 
ment of the handle will control the cutting. Finally, stop 
the machine and cut off the ends with knife or chisel.’ 


Meee) |} (eae aE) 
cloc, syne reese tind 00 a | 


697. To turn a tool handle, as shown at the left. First turn 
a cylinder roughly. After marking spaces, cut in or ‘‘size’’ 
down with the parting tool or chisel where the dimensions 
are naturally measured, as shown at the right. 


a 


698. The sizing tool is sometimes used for repeated sizings. 


a 


699. Use the calipers as shown, with one end close to the 
cutting tool. When the calipers indicate the correct diameter 
t An experienced turner, after placing one hand around the work, cuts 


through at the live-centre end with the chisel in the other hand, without 
stopping the lathe. 


326 Woodworking 


stop cutting. Do the rest of the turning with gouge and chisel 
as already described. Have the basil touching the surface and 
move the handle to one side to keep it so. Finally hold a 
small piece of f»lded sandpaper with the forefinger and middle 
finger and move it rapidly back and forth over the surface. 


ALI 





700. To cut concave curves or hollows. Turn a cylinder 
and mark the spaces, hold a small gouge horizontally and 
at right angles to the work, and remove part of the wood; 
that is, rough out the curve, but keep well within the lines. 


sol 


701. Then hold the tool as shown at the left, with the 
basil bearing on the wood, and push it carefully forward and 
upward, at the same time rolling it partly around, and moving 
the handle toward the right or left as the cutting proceeds, 
so that the gouge will work itself up out of the wood at the 
bottom of the curve. At the end of the cut the tool should be 
in the position shown at the right. Next cut on the other side 
of the hollow in the same way, and continue cutting first on 
one side and then the other until the curve is correct. By this 
process you make a shearing cut with the grain. By keeping 
the basil of the tool bearing on the wood as a guide a slight 
movement of the handle will cause the edge to cut all that is 
required, and the tool can be controlled so as to cut cleanly 
and without catching. Practise with hollows of different 





Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 327 


dimensions and try to make a series of uniform size and 
shape.* 


GU eeu 


702. To turn a combination of hollows and rounds, cut 
the hollows first, as shown at the left, and then the convex 
curves or beads. The sides of the hollows must be cut down 
straight for some distance to allow for the rounding of the 
beads. Round the beads with gouge or chisel. The chisel will 
give a finer surface but the gouge will cut quicker. The experi- 
enced turner will cut both rounds and hollows smoothly with 
the gouge. 

Such simple forms, of various degrees of curvature and in 
an endless variety of combinations, are the elements with 
which the outlines of most turned objects are formed. 


SEED a pe 
a ee 
Bie 


703. To mark spaces where there are square members, 
or parts, as shown at the left, do this before setting the lathe 
in motion, squaring distinct pencil lines across one side of 





t To test the correctness of the curve, use the angle of the square. Ina 
semi-circle chords drawn from any point in the circumference to the ends of 
the diameter will form a right angle with each other. DAE, DBE, and 
DCE will be right angles. In whatever position applied, the point (angle) 
of the square will touch the circumference. 


328 Woodworking 


the piece. Cut a groove at the ends of the square members, 
or make deep V-shaped cuts with the chisel as already shown. 
Then round the corners of the square members, and proceed 
for this design as shown at the left. 


2 
AO 


704. Sandpaper should not be used in the earlier exer- 
cises, as the pupil should learn to cut rather than scour the 
wood into shape. For ordinary work cut a small piece of 
worn sandpaper, double it and hold as shown in 699. Move 
it quickly back and forth to prevent scratching the work. 
In sandpapering sharp curves or beads care must be taken 
not to injure the shape. The surface can be further smoothed 
or polished with a handful of fine shavings and dust made 


by the turning. 


FACE PLATE 





705. For many shapes, rosettes and cups, for example, the 
wood must be fastened to the live spindle only. Small pieces 
can be screwed (by turning the lathe) to the centre screw of 
the face plate, which is substituted for the spur centre used 
in the previous exercises. For large pieces screws are inserted 
through holes in the face-plate. It is common to put a piece 
of waste wood between the face-plate and the work, to cut 
against, and care must be taken that the screws are placed so 
that they will not be struck by the tools when cutting deeply. 
When the wood is to be cut entirely through, this wood back- 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 329 


ing is necessary to prevent striking the face-plate. The face- 
plate can also be enlarged by screwing on a backing piece of 
greater diameter. The backing can be screwed in various 
ways to the wood, or in some cases can be glued. The tee-rest 
can be placed at right angles to the position already shown 
‘or at any angle required. 





706. Because of the varying angles at which the grain 
of the wood meets the edge of the tool in such work, it is com- 
mon to instruct that such turning be done with what are 
called ‘‘scraping tools’’ which are of various shapes, and have 
the basil on one side only. 

They can have the edge turned to form a scraping burr, 
by rubbing on an oilstone. These tools are held horizontally 
on the rest with the basil down. ‘The skilful, experienced 
- turner, however, does the greater part of his turning with 
the regular tools already mentioned and on the same general 
principles of cutting that have already been described, and 
uses the scraping tools only when necessary. The beginner 
should learn to do his work as much by clean cutting and as 
little by scraping as possible. There are, however, some 
operations which can be done only by scraping." 

707. To turn a disk. Cut off the corners with a hand-saw 
or saw approximately to shape with the band-saw. Screw to 
the screw chuck and mark with compasses. Place the tee-rest 
as shown, about */s’’ from the surface and parallel to it, as 
shown in the third illustration. Cut the edge with parting 


tIf the work be large, use a slower speed for the roughing out and a 
higher speed for the finishing. 


330 Woodworking 


tool. It is common to put a piece of waste wood between the 
face-plate and the work, to cut against. The edge can be fin- 


CO SP 230 


ished, or cut entirely, with gouge and scraping chisel held in 
the position shown in the last illustration, but a light cut 
must be taken to prevent chipping. 


\ PEG, 
Si 


708. Turn the face with gouge and scraping chisel, or 
scraping chisel alone, or skew chisel. Work from the centre 
toward you; that is, entirely between the centre and the edge 
nearest you,—never beyond the centre, for the further half 
of the wood is moving in the wrong direction. Test the 





710. Some kinds of work have to be held in a chuck. 
For example, after turning the upper side of the candlestick 
base shown in the first illustration, screw a piece of wood to 
the face-plate and turn a recess in it of the right size to tightly 
hold the turned base as shown in the last illustration. The 
depression in the bottom of the latter can now be turned. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 331 


711. Spheres and rings are turned on this principle 
carried farther. There are various forms of chucks for different 
problems. When the beginner has acquired enough skill to 
undertake work of this kind, he should seek a competent 
instructor or books on turning which go thoroughly into these 
more difficult problems.* 

712. The general principle of finishing turning is the same 
as with other work (394). The wood can be filled, if required, 
and the filler cleaned off with shavings. A common way to 
polish is with a pad. Put a little oil on a cloth, pour on shellac 
and make a pad to hold against the work, on the same prin- 
ciple as French polishing (406, footnote). Shellac can also 
be applied with a brush, revolving the work by hand, and 
afterwards rubbing down in the usual way. Wax can be 
used. 

713. Lathes are also adapted for screw-cutting, and have 
various tool-holding and self-feeding attachments—also knife 
attachments by which patterns can be turned automatically 
at great speed, and appliances for turning a great variety of 
odd shapes, as twisted or “‘rope”’ patterns,—but such matters 
belong to advanced work and manufacturing purposes rather 
than to the elementary principles of hand-turning. 


t To turn a ball or sphere the process can be the same as with the beads 
already shown, turning until the wood is nearly cut through, when the ends 
are cut off in the usual way. The curvature can be tested with a templet. 
Then make a form or ‘“‘chuck’’ in which the sphere will be held firmly. 
With the chuck and sphere screwed to the face-plate, the sphere can be 
finished accurately. This requires turning the sphere repeatedly in the 
chuck to expose new parts to be finished, an operation calling for experience 
and judgment. When the sphere becomes too small to be held by the 
chuck, the latter must be altered. 

A templet, or pattern, is sometimes used to secure accuracy in turning 
some shapes. It is merely an exact reverse outline of the required form 
cut in sheet metal or thin wood and applied to the work to test it. Stop 
the lathe before applying the templet. It is best to learn to turn by eye as 
far as possible and to resort to such tests only when necessary. 


332 | Woodworking 


MORTISING MACHINES 


714. Mortising machines. The mortise is cut by repeated 
strokes of a chisel, by borings of a bit, or by a combined ar- 
rangement of bit and four-sided hollow chisel. Mortising 
attachments are made for saw-benches, and there are foot- 
power machines. Mortisers should have the light come from 
the side. The arrangement, adjustments, and other details 
should be learned directly from the machine you are to use, 
for there are many kinds in use. While mortising machines 
are necessary in factory work, they are not essential for the 
beginner, or amateur, because a small amount of mortising 
can be done well enough by hand (467). 






el 
pew os — hi 
oy => 





715. The face-side or joint-edge of the stock is kept against 
the gauge or fence. 

The motor can be mounted directly on the boring spindle 
and both slide back and forth together to make a mortise. 
The table can be raised or lowered to suit the size of stock to 
be mortised, and can have slots through which fixtures or 
gauges can be clamped. The table can be moved to and from 
the bit by a lever, or by power feed, and be fitted with stops 
to regulate the depth of mortise. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 333 


TENONING MACHINES 


716. Tenoning machines. Important for factory produc- 
tion, but not essential for the beginner, amateur, or general 
student, because tenons can be cut with the bench saw rapidly 
enough for the demands of general work. There are different 
kinds of machines and the arrangement, adjustments, and 
other details should be learned directly from the machine to 
be used. It is considered a dangerous machine and should be 
safeguarded as much as possible. 

717. Some machines make the tenon wholly by saws. It 
can be cut at one operation by five circular saws, each driven 
by a motor mounted on its arbor. Two cross-cutting saws, one 
above and one below the wood, cut the shoulders of the tenon, 
one cross-cutting saw cuts off the end of the tenon, and two 
splitting-saws, one above and one below, cut the sides of the 
tenon. The table which supports the wood can have a mov- 
able gauge and a clamping device, as well as slots through which 
various fixtures can be clamped. The table can be tilted, 
and be on a carriage which rolls on a track. The work can be 
fed to the saws by moving the carriage along until the tenon 
is cut. 

718. Another type of machine cuts the tenon by knives 
attached to revolving cutter-heads. Spurs score the shoulders 
in advance of the cutting knives to cause clean cutting. There 
can also be an arrangement for coping or making variations 
in the shoulders, as is sometimes required. 


MOULDING MACHINES 


719. Moulding machines are either horizontal or irregular. 
The former are used to get out matched boards, straight 
beading, reeding, strips of moulding, and the like. The stock 
is passed through the machine as through a planer, and is 
cut by knives shaped to fit the pattern required. Such ma- 
chines are essential to factory production, but are not impor- 


334 Woodworking 


tant for the beginner, amateur, or general student, because 
the product of these moulders is for sale almost everywhere. 





720. The Shaper or irregular moulder cuts the edge of 
the wood into any desired shape for which cutters can be 
fitted. A first-class shaper will mould the wood in any direc- 
tion of the grain and leave the surface so smooth that no 
further finishing is required. The shaper has always been 
regarded as a dangerous machine—one with which the novice 
should not experiment. It has two vertical spindles (or some- 
times only one) with collars which hold cutting knives of 
whatever shape may be required. These knives revolve rapidly 
with the spindle like the cutters of the Planer or Jointer, and 
cut the wood as the operator passes it by them. The form into 
which the wood is cut is of course the reverse of the shape of 
the cutting-knives. The two spindles revolve in opposite direc- 
tions, so that the operator can cut according to the direction 
of the grain. If there is but one spindle, the direction can be 
reversed.’ Safety guards can be used. 


t “The essential features of a successful shaper are primarily the design 
and construction of the frame and table, the extent to which all vibration is 
eliminated, the type and arrangement of spindle and boxes. ‘The machine 
must be so made that the spindle can be run at the highest practical speeds 
with perfect steadiness, as the lightest vibration or chatter will produce 
imperfect work.”—Baxter D. Whitney and Son, Inc, 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 335 


SCRAPING MACHINES 


721. Scraping machines. Valuable where much fine finish- 
ing of flat surfaces is done. The stock is run through as with 
a planer, and is scraped by a knife with a turned edge, working 
on the same principle as the hand scraper (194-6). This 
leaves an even and satin-like surface,—a glossy finish superior 
to that produced by sandpaper. Such machines are made as 
wide as 64”’ and will scrape material as thin as 7/16’, and up- 
wards, very economically in regard to time and upkeep. There 
is removed from the surface a continuous shaving which may 
be as thin as tissue, or as heavy as the thickest wrapping 
paper. By substituting a toothed knife, solid or built-up work 
can be toothed ready for gluing. 


722. Showing scraper with turned edge and toothing 
knife. 


SHAFTING, PULLEYS, BELTS, ETC. 


723. All lines of shafting and all machinery should be set 
up exactly level and all connecting pulleys exactly in line. 













STRAIGHT EDGE,CLAMPED 
TO TABLE TO GUIDE 
SOME KINDS OF WORK 
(3 ee PE TS ) 






_SPINOLE AND 
e-" GUTTERS 












PIECE TO BE MOULDED 
ee ey 






Mortising and “‘lock cornering ’’ (539) can be done with a head consisting 
of alternate grooving cutters and collars of equal thickness. By attach- 
ments routing and dovetailing can be done. Small shapers are made to be 
connected with a light socket. 


336 Woodworking 


A countershaft (674) enables a machine to be started or 
stopped without affecting the running of the main shaft, and 
is belted directly to the machine and also to the main shaft. 
The latter belt runs on either of two pulleys, side by side, on 
the countershaft—one tight, the other loose. When the belt 
is shifted to the tight pulley the countershaft is turned and 
the machine set in motion. When the belt is on the loose pulley 
the countershaft and machine stop, while the loose pulley 
continues to revolve. The belt is shifted from one pulley to 
the other by one or more levers. Loose pulleys are apt to give 
trouble and must not be neglected. 

724. Motors connected directly with each riachee have 
obvious advantages, as dispensing with the care, danger, and 
expense of shafting and belting, and also avoiding the need of 
running main shafting when only part of the machinery is in 
use. 

725. Pulleys and Beits. It is better to have large pulleys 
than small, but the relative sizes must be regulated by the 
speed required.* 


t To find the speed of a pulley to be driven by another pulley, multiply 
the diameter of the driving pulley by the number of its revolutions and 
divide by the diameter of the pulley to be driven. 

To find the necessary diameter of a driving pulley to give a required 
number of revolutions to a driven pulley of given diameter, multiply the 
diameter of the pulley to be driven by the required number of revolutions 
and divide by the number of revolutions of the driving pulley or the driving 
shaft. 

To find the necessary diameter of a driven pulley in order that it may 
revolve at a required speed, multiply the diameter of the driving pulley 
by its number of revolutions, and divide by the required number of 
revolutions of the driven pulley. 

A speed of three thousand feet a minute is as fast as a belt should run 
in ordinary cases. For small pulleys and narrow belts 15 feet between 
shafting is a good distance, but for larger pulleys and belts a greater dis- 
tance is better, although it is common practice to use much shorter belts. 

To find the length of a belt, add the diameters of the pulleys, divide 
by two, multiply by 3.1416 and add twice the distance between the centres 
of the shafts. Belts are frequently too tight. 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 337 


726. To make a machine run in the opposite direction 
from the shaft, which is sometimes necessary, the belt must 
be crossed between the pulleys. 

727. Belts are of leather, rubber, etc. The hair side of a 
leather belt, being the weaker side, should be in contact 
with the pulley. There are various metallic fasteners for 
belts, which are easily applied,—also lacing of wire, and 
sewing with tough wire, using short stitches. The ends can 
also be shaved tapering, to lap over one another, and glued or 
riveted. Belt lacing machines are in common use.* 

728. To throw a belt off a pulley, press with a stick at the 
edge of the belt where it runs on to the driving pulley. To 
slip a belt on, do so in the direction of the power. Fit the belt 
on the driven pulley, and slide it onto the driving pulley with 
a stick, at the point where it is to run on to the pulley. Large 
belts are usually thrown on and off by hand, but hold the 
hand straight with the fingers extended, and use it somewhat 
like the stick. Do not grasp a belt when throwing it on or off, 
but merely slide it on with a quick motion, keeping the fingers 
stiff. 

729. Oiling. With the old-fashioned boxes where there 
is ee? te holes clea an oil hole, keep the holes clean and oil every morn- 


me (Fx 


t There are various ways of using the rawhide belt-lacing. A common 
way isshown. Before lacing, cut the ends-of the belt squarely across, using 
the try square. Punch holes with a belt punch. All crossing of lacings, 
whether leather or wire, must be on the cutside. The lacing on the in- 
side which comes against the pulley must run lengthways of the belt, as it 
would soon wear through if crossed. There are two thicknesses on the 
inside. To fasten the ends cut a little nick in the edge of the lacing at such 
a point that, when pulled through an extra hole made for the purpose with 
a knife, the nick will catch and keep the end in place. 





338 Woodworking 


ing before beginning work. Modern machinery is provided 
with devices of various kinds, which make it necessary to oil 
at long intervals only. These save much trouble and greasi- 
ness, although open to the objection that as the oiling is not 
a matter of daily routine it may be neglected until after the 
bearings have become dry. Sliding ways and other slowly 
moving adjustments, should be kept wiped and oiled. 


QUESTIONS 


Common MacuineEs. 1. If you could have but three machines for general 
woodworking, which would you choose? In what order would you place them 
in regard to importance? Why? 

CIRCULAR Saw. 2. Show how to avoid the chief dangers from the circular 


3. How much should the saw project above the table? Why? 
4. Show the process of rip sawing. 
5. How can you safely push narrow pieces past the saw? 
6. If necessary to stop ripping instantly, what should you do? 
7. Do you advocate making glue joints with the circular saw? Why? 
8. Show the process of cross cutting. 
9. How can you cut a number of pieces of the same length? 
10. Show how to use a clearance block. 
11. Show how to cut a groove or a dado with a common circular saw—how 
to wabble a saw. 
12. Show how to cut a rabbet—a stop rabbet. 
13. Show how to cut a tenon. 
14. Show how to cut wedges or tapering pieces. 
15. Show how to make a jig for cutting octagonal sticks—for cutting 
jullets. 
16. Show how to rough out mouldings and the like. 
17. Show how to partially rough out circular hollows. 
SwING Saw. 18. For what is the swing saw used? Shaw how 1t works. 
BAND Saw. 19. What are the advantages of the band saw? Has tt any 
disadvantage for curved work? 
20. What dangers are to be avoided? 
ai. Show the process of sawing. 
22. Show how to cut curved work which has to be sawed from two adjacent 
sides. 
Jic Saw. 23. Compare with the band saw. What one advantage has the 
jig saw? What disadvantages? 


Woodworking Machines and Their Uses 339 


24. Show the process of sawing holes or enclosed openwork. 

PLANER. 25. Make sketch showing the principle upon which the single 
surfacer works. 

26. To make a warped surface flat, what must you do? 

27. Show the process of planing—to plane tapering. 

JOINTER. 28. What are the functions of the jointer? 

29. Show the principle upon which it works. 

30. Show how to adjust the tables and knives. 

31. Show how to avoid danger from the cutters. 

32. Show how to plane warped stock. 

33. Show how to plane tapers—to bevel—to cut a rabbet. 

SANDERS. 34. What are the common forms of sanding machines? 

35. Show the principle of the drum sander—the disk sander—the spindle 
sander—how to sand curves. 

36. What advantages has the hand block belt machine? 

BorinG MACHINES. 37. Show the principle of boring machines, and the 
process of boring. 

LATHE. 38. Illustrate the principle of the lathe. 

39. When a countershaft 1s used how can you regulate the speed? 

40. Show the general process of turning a cylinder. 

41. Show how to use the calipers. 

42. Show how to lay off spaces on the work. 

43. Show how to control the cutting with the basil of the tool. 

44. Show how to cut beads—to cut hollows. 

45. Show how to cut off the wood at the required length. 
_ 46. Illustrate the general principle of face-plate turning—of turning 
with chuck. 

47. Show how to use sandpaper, and how to finish. 

MortTIsING MacuHINEs. 48. Whatts the principle of the moritsing machine? 
How ts the cutting done? 

TENONING MAcHINEs. 49. In what different ways are tenons cut? 

SHAPER. 50. Show the principle of the shaper and how the cutting ts done. 

SCRAPING MACHINES. 51. How does the scraping machine work? What are 
its advantages? 

PowER. 52. Compare the application of power by countershaft and by 
direct motor drive. 

53. Show simple ways to lace a belt. 

54. Show how to throw a belt on and off. 


WwooD 


730. Selecting the stock. First, the wood must be of a 
kind suitable for the work. Strength, weight, cost, appearance, 
hardness, ease of working, toughness, durability, elasticity, 
suitability for finishing, and other qualities have to be con- 
sidered in many cases. It all depends on what you are going 
to make. Except for rough work, use dry, clear, straight- 
grained, well-seasoned stock, flat (that is, not warped or twist- 
ed), and free from knots and other defects.* Choose stock of 
such dimensions that there will be as little waste as possible. 
Your Stock bill (Bill of Materials) gives the number and sizes 
of the parts. The rest is a matter of measurement, experience, 
and common-sense. It is usually cheaper to get small parts 





*Showing crookedness of grain due to the tree being crooked when 
young, so that the heart frequently is not in the centre of a straight tree. 
Such crooked grain increases the tendency to twist and warp, because 
there is so much end-grain on the surface of the boards, which absorbs and 
releases moisture more rapidly than the side-grain. 


340 


Wood 


out of left-over pieces on hand, but 
this often takes more time. For 
small work you can often buy short 
stock, and youcan buy ‘‘squares’’ al- 
SO,i.e., Square stock of various sizes. 
731. End of log, showing annual 
rings, sap-wood and heartwood. 
Also the pith rays (medullary rays), 
radiating from the pith at the 
centre. Medullary rays are found in 
all wood used for woodworking, and are very conspicuous in oak. 
septa 7oae 0 8 cut 

lengthways, showing 
annual rings forming 
the lines or streaks, 
commonly called the 
een TAIT 1202} FOL 
*, board or other piece 
of lumber. Also,show- 
ing the medullary rays. 















733. Agreen log contains much water. In drying it shrinks 
most around the log, not so much across it, and very little 
lengthways.' 


«The shrinkage from the green to the oven-dry condition across the 
grain for a flat-sawed board is about 8 per cent. and for a quarter-sawed 


342 Woodworking 





734. Showing result of this unequal shrinking,—length- 
ways cracks running toward middle of log. 





735. Halving or quartering the log exposes the inner part, 
so that drying is more uniform, and the cracking less 


| 

Ni 

my 

ie 

Ff 
"“S 
i 





736. Slash or plain sawing (the common way). 





(739) board about 4% per cent., while the shrinkage parallel to the grain is 
practically negligible for most species.’’— Forest Products Laboratory. 


Wood 343 


737. Strongly figured grain 
often results from plain saw- 
ing, with woods like oak, chest- 
nut, ash, etc., particularly in 
the outer boards. 

738. Showing how boards, planks, etc., sawed from a log 
have the same hala as the whole log to shrink unevenly. 
The middle board does not curl. 
The others curl or cup away from 
the heart, because the sapwood on 
the outside contains more water 
than the heart and so shrinks more 
in drying. Boards nearest the 
middle are the best, because they 
curl the least, are the widest, and 
have the least sapwood, which is 
usually inferior. All the boards 
shrink in width, and become thinner toward the edges. 

739. Quarter-sawing. The log is first quartered, and then 
each quarter sawed by itself. Radial sawing gives the best 











boards, but wastes more lumber than other ways. Quarter- 
sawed lumber shrinks more in thickness than plain-sawed, but 
this is usually of less importance than shrinkage across the 
wide surface. Quarter-sawed lumber holds its shape much 


344 Woodworking 





RADIAL 


better than plain-sawed and is therefore better for work of a 
high grade. The middle board sometimes has to be divided, 
because it contains the pith. 





740. Showing figure formed on the surface by the medul- 
lary rays, as in quartered oak. 





"41. Showing shrinkage of timber sawed from different 
parts of log. The centre piece holds its shape best. The best 
way to cut flooring is shown by A. It will shrink the least 
and wear best. A timber is stiffer if the annual rings are like 
B than if like C. 


Wood 345 


8 


? 
i 






2 


——— 





thence m@eoeane2cewveese@ oo 


ere e828 8 & @@ eee =a os oe 


N 


r) 
as 
9 


742. Rift (or split) stock is stronger than sawed, unless 
the wood is perfectly straight-grained. Four cross-grained, 
weak pieces can be sawed from the block shown. One strong, 
straight-grained piece can be obtained by splitting, that is by 
following the grain. The split or rift piece is suitable for a 
hatchet handle or a stout pin, for example. The four sawed 


pieces are not. 





743. Boards ‘stuck’ for seasoning, so that the air can 
circulate between them. The sticks must be directly over 


one another. 





744. Results of carelessness in “ sticking.” 


346 Woodworking 


745. The old-fashioned air-dried stock (usually contain- 
ing 15% or more of moisture) is hard to find. Lumber is now 
dried in kilns by artificial means, and is claimed to be stronger 
and less liable to decay than if air-dried.1 The amount of 
moisture is usually reduced to 5% or 6% for furniture and 
cabinet work, while for other work from 8% to 12% is com- 
mon, but this is a matter of judgment. 

746. Seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green, 
dryer to the touch, usually has a different odor, and cuts 
differently. A piece you whittle breaks off differently. One 
test is to rap the boards sharply with a hammer. A green 
piece and a dry one will have different vibrations and give 
out different sounds. Saw, plane, whittle, break the shavings. 

747. All wood, no matter how thoroughly seasoned or 
protected by paint or varnish,? expands and contracts in 
width. Moisture (humidity) makes it expand. Dryness makes 
it shrink. Heat makes it shrink, unless the humidity increases 
in proportion. These changes cannot be prevented, * and must 


t Lumber air-seasoned for years under cover has always been considered 
the best. Since kiln-drying came into use, air-seasoning has been less and 
less done, because kiln-drying saves much time, investment of capital, etc., 
but the result until recently has been much inferior to air-drying. Great 
improvements have been made lately in the kiln-drying process. The 
Forest Products Laboratory reports that ‘‘to all intents and purposes 
lumber which has been properly kiln-dried is equivalent to that which has 
been ajr-seasoned under the best conditions.’’ Whether common com- 
mercial kiln-drying is yet done in the best way however may certainly be a 
question, and if your work requires toughness, elasticity, and ‘‘life’’ in the 
wood, it may be well to use air-dried stock if you can find it, until common 
kiln-drying has been still further improved. Soaking in water first assists 
in the seasoning, but long soaking may lessen the toughness. Small pieces 
can be smoked. 

2 The only coating which will prevent wood absorbing moisture, accord- 
ing to the Forest Products Laboratory, is aluminum leaf. 

3 The power developed by the expansion of wood can be seen in the 
common operation of splitting rocks by drilling a row of holes, driving dry 
wooden wedges into them, and then wetting the wedges, when the rock will 
be split by the swelling of the wedges. 


Wood 347 


be allowed for, in many kinds of work, or the wood will either 
be buckled or split or the work forced apart (See 326, 376, 
379, 382 footnote, 387, 484, 540). Cracks, curling, warping, 
winding, or twisting of wood are due to irregular and uneven 
swelling or shrinking. As a rule the heart side will be less 
affected by atmospheric changes than the bark side. 

748. Lay a board on the ground in dry weather and you 
will soon find it curled or warped, because although dry on 
the upper side it has absorbed dampness on the under side. 
Even laying a board flat on a bench or on the floor will cause 
it to curl, because it is more exposed to the air on one side 
than on the other. Therefore keep your stock of lumber so 
that each piece will be equally exposed on all sides to heat and 
cold, moisture and dryness, if possible. After planing or 
trimming stock leave it on edge or on end, not flat on the side. 


SS 


749. Common result of laying a board flat. Keep your stock 
carefully stuck, which tends to keep the pieces straight and 
true. Never lay good boards down flat upon one another, 
unless they are thoroughly seasoned. The top board will 
warp. Keep short pieces, which it is not worth while to 
“stick,’”’ standing on end, equally exposed on all sides to heat 
and cold, moisture and dryness.* 

750. Stock for nice work must be kept and used where it 
is dry, or when the work is removed later to a dry place it 





t Attempts to permanently flatten a warped piece of dry wood are seldom 
worth while with common stock. In case of an heirloom or something 
rare, remember that wetting one side tends to make that side expand; 
applying heat, to make the heated side concave. Soaking in boiling water, 
pressing into shape (or bending the other way), and leaving until dry can 
also be tried. Butit is hard to permanently flatten warped stock. 


348 Woodworking 


will shrink or warp, and perhaps be ruined. Where wood has 
been exposed to damp air, as in a shed or cellar, let it stand 
in the warm shop for some time before using it for nice work. 

751. When warping or change of shape would be partic- 
ularly harmful, first get the stock out roughly to shape but 
too large, and leave exposed to the air on all sides. Allow some | 
time for it to warp or twist. Then you can cut to the exact 
shape without much subsequent change of form.* 


Se Cangas a = 
ec ee et ee 
en ae te age sen ane z 
OM A BEE AF oa es ne ae me, 





752. Boards or plank exposed to the weather are more 
durable if laid heart side down, but are more apt to curl up 
at the edges than if heart side up. 





753. If laid heart side up they will lie flatter, but the action 
of the atmosphere, water, sun, etc., will tend to separate the 
layers and fibres. 

754. Warping is often avoided by building up with a 
number of narrower pieces so arranged that their warping 


t A golf-stick, a gun stock, a bow, a billiard cue, for example, should be 
roughed out, considerably too large, then hung up for further seasoning. 
When reduced to shape later, it will hold its shape better than if it had been 
entirely shaped at one time. 


Wood 349 


tendencies will counteract each other (534). Often done for 
bench-tops, frames of machines, etc.’ See 365. 

755. Always try to treat both sides of a board alike. If 
you have an inch board planed down by machine to three- 
eighths of an inch, for instance, have it planed equally, as 
nearly as may be, from both sides. It is common to simply 
smooth off, or “‘surface’’ one side, and then plane the board 
down on the other side, often making it warp badly at once. 

756. Hard wood is that from broad-leaved trees, as the 
oak, while soft wood comes from the coniferous or needle- 
leaved trees,? as the pine. Dry wood is harder, stiffer, and 
stronger than green, but more likely to break. Green wood is 
tougher and will bend and resume its former shape better. 
As a rule heavy wood is stronger and stiffer than light wood, 
and hard woods are usually stronger than soft woods, though 
there are exceptions. Heavy wood swells and shrinks more 
than light, which will usually hold its shape better. Seis els 
changes more quickly than heartwood. 


t Where but one side of a board is seen or used, and where the full 
strength is not needed, as in a drawing-board, warping and twisting can 
sometimes be largely prevented by lengthways saw-cuts (easily made with 
the circular saw) on the back or under surface, the crossways strength 
required being secured by cleating or other devices. Doors and most 
forms of panelled work also illustrate methods of preventing damage from 
swelling and shrinking (372). 

2 This distinction is based on botanical reasons and is sometimes puzzling. 
For instance, whitewood of the hardwood class is softer and easier to work 
than hard pine of the softwood class. 

3 ‘Some hardwoods are weaker than some softwoods; and some soft- 
woods, notably long leaf pine, are stronger than many hardwoods.’’— 
Kellogg. Lumber and its Uses. 

“Other factors being equal, the strength of wood is roughly proportional 
to the dry weight.’’—Kellogg. 

“Heartwood is generally heavier than sapwood, and fully as strong if 
equally free from defects. Moreover, it is usually much more resistant to 
decay. On the other hand, since its cells are more open, sapwood usually 
absorbs wood preservatives better than hardwood.’’—Kellogg. 


350 Woodworking 





757. Re-sawing of dry stock is uncertain. Showing results 
which sometimes occur (re-sawed mahogany—exaggerated 
merely because of the short length of the drawings). Re- 
sawing is often satisfactory, but it is usually safer to buy wood 
of the right thickness than to split or re-saw thicker stock. 





“The sapwood is, as a rule, darker in the whitewood class than the 
heartwood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in color in most 
hardwood trees which have had time to season. In some of the white, or 
softer woods, when fresh cut, the difference is scarcely perceptible; but 
exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish tinge, due toa 
species of mould fungi which attacks them.”’—Laslett and Ward. 

There is a distinction between the elasticity needed for such purposes as a 
bow or springboard, and the toughness required for the ribs of a canoe, or 
the wattles of a basket. In the former case the material must not merely 
bend without breaking, but must spring back (or nearly so) to its former 
shape when released, as with lancewood or white ash; while in the latter 
case it must bend without breaking but is not required to spring back to its 
original form, as with many green sticks which can be easily bent but have 
not much elasticity. These two qualities are found combined in varying 
degrees in all woods. Elastic wood must necessarily have toughness up to 
the breaking point, but tough wood may have but little elasticity. Asa 
rule, wood from a young tree is tougher than that from an old one; the best, 
hardest, and strongest in the young tree usually being nearest the heart, 
while in an old tree the heart, having begun to deteriorate, is softer and not 
so good as the more recently formed growths nearer the sapwood. If the 
tree is in its prime the wood is more uniformly hard throughout. The 
sapwood, as a rule, is tougher than the heartwood, though usually inferior 
in other respects; and timber light in weight is sometimes tougher than 
heavy wood, though the latter is often stronger, more durable, and prefer- 


351 





758. Plywood. To save expense and to prevent warping, 
winding, etc., several layers of very thin wood are glued 
together under pressure, with the grain running in different 
directions. This principle was often used by the Ancients. 
When there are three layers, as shown, the middle one is 
often thicker than the others. Frequently more than three 
layers are glued together. 





HEART- STAR- CUP- 
SHAKES SHAKES SHAKES 


759. Three common defects in lumber, due to uneven 
shrinkage, swaying of the tree in the wind, decay, or other 
causes. 

760. Knots are merely the beginnings of limbs. A smooth 
trunk often has knots inside, due to limbs which died or were 
removed. For some work tight knots do no harm, but loose 
knots are bad for all but the roughest work. A spike knot is 
one which has been sawed through lengthways. Wood con- 
taining streaks of pitch and pitch-pockets should not be used 
for nice work. 

761. Preservation of lumber. Thorough seasoning, pro- 
tection from sun and rain, and ventilation are the essentials 
for the preservation of wood. It decays fastest when alter- 
nately wet and dry, as parts of the piles of a bridge, or fence 
posts, etc.; or when kept in a close, moist atmosphere, as 


able for many purposes. In elm, ash, and hickory, the sapwood is some- 
times considered better than the heart. The growth and structure of trees 
is a very complex matter, however, and the diversities almost infinite. 


352 Woodworking 


timbers over a damp, unventilated cellar. Wood kept under 
water resists decay. When protected from atmospheric 
changes it lasts very long as is illustrated by recent Egyptian 
researches. 

762. Decay can be much retarded by treating wood with 
creosote, zinc chloride, sodium fluoride, or other preserva- 
tives. The Forest Products Laboratory reports that charring 
the lower ends of fence posts is not worth while. 

Creosote stains, coal tar and wood tar or pitch, applied 
hot, in thin coats, to dry wood are good. Much wood is now 
impregnated with preservatives by various processes. Any 
thick coating like paint or tar should be applied only to 
thoroughly seasoned wood. 


QUESTIONS 


Woop. 1. Define annual rings, heart wood, sap wood, medullary rays. 
2. Explain slash or plain sawing—quarter sawing. 
3. Show how the different boards sawed froma log shrink and curl. Which 
keep their shape best? 
4. What advantages from quarter sawing? 
5. How can you recognize quarter sawed lumber in case of oak and some 
other woods? 
6. What advantage has rift stock? 
7. Why is lumber “‘ stuck” for seasoning? What is essential in sticking? 
8. Compare atr seasoning and kiln drying. 
9. What causes green wood to shrink? How much may it shrink in width 
when it becomes very dry? 
10. What causes dry wood to swell?—to shrink? 
11. What causes it to crack, curl, warp, and wind? 
12. Why ts crooked-grained wood more subject to warping and winding than 
straight grained? 
13. If the expansion and contraction of wood cannot be prevented, what 
should you do in good work? In which direction does wood change the least? 
14. How should stock be stored? Why? Why should you not lay a board 
fiat on the floor or bench? 
15. Why ts tt essential for nice work, to keep stock in a dry, warm atmos- 
phere? . 
16. Why 1s tt best to plane equal amounts from each side of a board? 
17. What reasons are there for building up stock with several pieces? 


Wood 353 


18. Define hard wood—soft wood. 


19. 


Compare heavy and light wood, dry and green wood, in regard to strength, 


toughness, and other characteristics. 


20. 
21. 
22, 
2%. 
24. 
25. 


Which usually changes shape more, light or heavy stock? 

Compare heart wood and sap wood. 

Which side up should you lay boards exposed to the weather? Why? 
What is plywood?—when used? 

Name three kinds of shakes and define them. 

How can you account for knots in boards sawed from a log which was 


smooth on the outside? 


26. 
27. 


What conditions are essential for the preservation of wood? 
With what can wood be treated to retard decay? 





INDEX 


(Numbers re‘er to pages) 


Abrasives (sandpaper, etc.), 87-89 
grinding wheels, 109-111 
grindstones, IOQ-III 
oilstones, III, 113 

Accidents, avoidance of, 273, 289, 
290-2, 293, 301, 304-5, 307 

Adjustments of plane, 59, 60, 62 
of machines. See Woodworking 

machines 

Adze-eye hammer, 89 

Air-brush, 190, I9I 

Air-dried stock, 346-348 

Alcohol, 188 
stains, 186, 187 

Aluminum leaf, 346 

Ammonia (for staining), 186, 187 

Angles 
of 45° and 135°, to lay out, 16, 17, 

18 
of edged tools, See 
Basil, etc. 
of saw teeth, 120 
Angle-blocks. See Corner-blocks, 
2I2, 21% 

Annual rings, 341 

Anvil, 6 

Arc or circle, to strike, 19, 20 
to draw when centre is out of 

reach, 21 

Arkansas stone, 112 

Arrises, 89 

Artificial abrasives, 109-112 

Asphaltum, 187, 195 

Assembling, 147-150 
tools for, 36-109 

Auger-bit, 74-79 
hollow, 83 
to sharpen, 116 

Automatic or push drills, 74, 84 

Awl, brad, 74, 84 
to sharpen, 118 
marking- or scratch-, 7 

Axe, edge of, 36 


{10, I12. 


Back-bent (straight-bent) chisel, 39 
Back for case work, 177, 244 
Background (carving), 165-167, 170 
Back saw, 53, 54 
Ball, to turn, 331 
Band saw, 292-296 
Barbed nails, 93 
Basil, 36, 39, 109-112 
hollow-ground orconcave, I10, 112 
Battens, 172, 173 
Bayberry tallow, 178 
Bead cutter, 72, 73 
Beading, 306 
Beads, to turn, 323, 324 
Beam, collar, 137, 138 
I, 140 
Beam-compass (trammel), 20, 21 
Beams, floor, 138-141 
stresses, 138-I4I 
Bearings, oiling, 337, 338 
Beeswax. See Wax 
Bell-faced hammer, 89 
Belt-lacing, 337 
Belt sanders, 311, 312 
Belts, 335-337 
to find length of, 336 
speed of, 336 
to slip on or off, 337 
Bench (Workbench), I, 2 
carving, 2 
-hook, 4, 70 
saw. See Circular saw, 273, etc. 
-stops or -dogs, I, 2, 3, 4 
-vise, I, 2, 3, 4 
Bending wood, 150-153 
Bevel, 16, 17, 18, 153 
to lay out with square, 16, 17, 18 
to plane, 70, 71, 154 
obtaining angles, 260 
cutting with circular saw, 274, 
288-9 
cutting with jointer, 306 
cutting with sander, 309, 310 


359 


356 Index 


Bevel—Continued 

-edged chisels, 40 

of edged tools. See Basil 
Beveling, 153, 154 

edges (boat), 260 
Bichromate of potash, 187 
Bill of materials, 129, 134, 135 
Bill, stock, 134, 135 
Binding of saws, 52 
Bird’s mouth joint, 252 
Bit-brace, 74-77 
Bit-gauges, 81 
Bit, plane-, 59 
Bits, 74-83 

auger-, 74-79 

centre-, 80-81 

expansive-, 79 

Ford-, 75 

Fostner-, 80 

gimlet-, 75, 80 

hollow auger-, 83 

Irwin, 75 

quill, 96 

screwdriver, 98 

spoke pointers, 83 

screw and plug, 83 

screw and plug cutters, 83 

sizes of auger, 75 

twist-, 80 

twist-drills, 80 

to sharpen, 116 

to withdraw, 77 
Black stain, 187 
Blind dovetailing, 242 

mortising, 218 

nailing (sliver), 93, 94 

-nail tool, 93 
Blocking, 96, 103, 104 
Block plane, 60, 70 
Blocks, corner-, 212, 213 
Blue-prints, 133 
Board foot, 133, 134 

measure, 133, 134 
Boards, measurement of, 133, 134 
Boarding, 94, 95, 136, 137 
Boat stem, joint for, 254 
Bolts, 101, 150 
Bone black, 187 
Boring, 74-84 

deep holes, 78 

large holes, 79 

templets for, 82 

through the wood, 78 


without splitting, 78 
machines, 312-314 
tools, 74-84 
Bow saw, 54, 55 
Box, assembling, 147, 148 
Boxes, packing, 160, 161 
Box lock, to fit, 255 
-making, 130, 131, 154-160 
Brace, bit-, 74-77 
push-, 8 
(construction), 136, 212 
joint for, 250, 251 
ratchet-, 76, 77 
Bracket (or scroll) saw, 55 
Brackets for staging (shingling), 263 
Brad-awl, 74, 84 
to sharpen, 118 
Brads, 89 
Breaking joints, 17I, 261, 262 
Bridge, lattice, 138 
strains or stresses, 138-141 
Broad surfaces, planing, 68 
to make joints for, 247-248 
Brown stain, 187 
Bruises, to remove, 183 
Brush, air-, 190 
Brushes, 190, 195 
“Built-up’’ constructions, 168, 206, 
207, 247-250, 310, 348 
doors, 176, 177 
Bull-nosed plane, 61 
Burnisher, 117, 118 
Burr, 95 
Butt chisel, 39 
gauge, 178, 209 
joint, 211-213, 2 
Buttons, for table tops, etc., 253 
Butts. See Hinge-fitting, 207-209 
‘‘Buzz”’ planer (jointer), 302-308 


Cabinet, assembling, 149, 150 
file, 85 
-maker’s bench, I, 2 
rasp, 85, 86 
scraper, 86, 8 
Calcined ape (Plaster of Paris), 
183 
Caliper rule, 22 
Calipers, 21 
testing with, 319, 325 
Canvas, to paint, 194 
Cap-iron (plane), 59-61 
Carborundum, III, 112 


Index 


Carpenter’s bench, 2 
pencil, 7 
square (steel square), II 
Carriage bolts, Io1 
clamps, 102 
Carved work, elementary, 162-170 
finishing, 170 
sandpapering, 170 
Carver’s bench, 2 
punch, 165 
Carving, chip, 170 
chisel, 37, 39 
Carving tools, 163 
whetting, 116 
Casein glue, 206 
Case work, assembling, 149, 150 
Casing nails, 89 
Casings, door and window, flashing, 
196 
Caul, 210, 264-5 
Cement-coated nails, 93, 160 
Centre-bit, 80, 81 
of irregular shape, to find, 317 
of square or rectangle, 317 
Centres for doweling, 232, 233 
of lathe, 315, 316 
Centring for turning, 316, 317 
Chairs, leveling, 29, 30 
Chalk and line, 24 
Chamfer, 153 
or bevel, to plane, 70, 71, 154 
Chamfering, 153, 154, 306 
Changing circular saws, 275 
Charring posts, 352 
Chattering (plane), 65 
Checking. See Cracking 
Chest. See Box-making 
steam, 150, 151 
locks, 255 
Chimney flashing, 197 
Chip carving, 170 
Chip (wooden plane), 62 - 
Chisel, 36, 39-44 
back-bent, 39 
bevel-edged, 40 
butt, 39 
carving, 36, 39 
cold, 6 
control of, 39, 40 
corner, 39 
firmer, 39 
framing, 39 
mortise, 39 


357 


paring, 39 
sharpening, 110-114 
skew, 39 
socket, 39 
tang, 39 
turning, 315 
to grind, I10, III 
Chords (stresses), 139-141 
Chuck, 330, 331 
Chute-boards (shooting or jack 
boards), 67 
Circle or arc, to strike, 19, 21 
Cork (rubbing blocks), 190 
(sanding blocks), 87, 88 
Circular-plane, 61 
Circular saw, 273-290 
segments, sawing, 288 
constructions, 249 
Clamping, 102-108, 237 
Clamps and their uses, 102, 106 
cabinet-, 102 
carriage- or C-shaped, 102 
column, 105, 106 
filing, 119, 120 
for heavy work, 102 
Jorgensen, 108 
Clapboarding, 171, 172 
Claw foot, 169 
Cleaner (for furniture), 193 
Clearance (saws), 47, 278, 281, 
293 
-block, 281, 282 
Cleating, 172, 173 
Cleats, 172, 173 
Cleavage, lines of, 263 
Clinching, 95, 96 
nails, 95 
Cogged joint, 251 
Cold chisel, 6 
glue (liquid), 206 
Collar-beams, 137, 138 
Collars (for wabbling saw), 282, 
283 
Columns, 249 
Combination machines, 272 
Combination (universal) planes, 61 
Saws, 275 
square, 18 
Compass saw, 54 
teeth, 120 
Compasses, 18-21, 259, 317 
Compound angles, fevers, 288-9 
curves, 22, 295, 296 


358 


Compression, 138-141 

Concave basil, 110, 112 
curves, to turn, 326, 327 
ground saws, 275 

Cone pulley, 315 

Coniferous trees, 349 


Construction, elementary  prin- 
ciples, 135-141 
Contraction, expansion and, 32, 


175, 178, 179, 227, 346-349 
Convex curves, to saw, 28 
to turn, 323, 324, 327 
Coping, 239, 240 
saw, 56 
Copper for flashing, 97 
nails for boat work, 89 
Cord, clamping with, 105 
Core-box plane, 288 
Coring (inside) work, to saw, 54-57, 
287, 288, 296, 298 
Cork for sanding, 87, 88 
for rubbing, 190 
Corner-blocks, 212, 213, 231, 237 
braces, 137, 212 
chisel, 39 
irons, 212, 254 
posts, 148, 149, I50 
Cornering tool, 89 
Corrugated fasteners, 90 
Counterboring, 79 
Countershaft, 315, 336 
Countersink, 81, 82, 99 
gauge, 82 
Cracking, 342, 347 
Cracks, to fill, 182, 183, 258 
flashing. See Flashing 
Crates, packing, I6I, 162 
Creosote, 352 
Crooked grain, 142, 340 
Cross-cutting saw and its use, 46, 
47-5! 
angles of teeth, 120 
circular saw, 274, 275, 280, 281 
Crossed belts, 337 
Cross-grain. See Crooked grain 
Cross-grained surface, smoothing. 
See Planing 
Cross-lap joint, 214-216 
Cross strain, 138-141 
Crushing strain. See Compression 
Cupped surface, 26 
Cup shakes, 351 
Cup, to turn, 328 


Index 


Curled hair for rubbing, 188 
surface, 26 
Curve, circular, to test, 327 
Curved forms, to sand, 88, 89 
built-up, 249, 250 
to cut by hand, 54-56 
to cut with band saw, etc., 295- 
298 
to cut with chisel or gouge, 40-45 
Curves, drawing irregular (with 
spline), 22 
drawing symmetrical, 25 
saws for, 54-56, 295-298 
Cut nails, using, 92 
for shingling, 92, 93, 262 
Cutter, dowel, 234 
-heads (circular saw), 299, 300, 
(jointer), 303 
bead-, 72, 73 
plug and screw, 83 
for inlaying, 210 
_Wwheel-, 56 
Cutting across the grain, 45 
gauge, 15 
nippers, 6 
Cylinder, to saw, 58 
built-up, 249 
to turn, 316-321 
with steps, to turn, 321, 322 
to cut off (lathe), 324, 325 


Dado, 179, 207, 217, 218, 260 
to cut with circular saw, 282-284 
trimming, 41, 42 
Dado and rabbet joint, 218 
Dado plane, 61, 207, 217 
Dead centre, 315, 316 
finish. See Finishing 
Decay and preservation, 351, 352 
Denatured alcohol, 188 
Dents, to remove, 183 
Diagonal boarding, 137 
members, 135-141, 161, 162, 251 
Diameter, finding, 21, 22 
driven pulley, 336 
driving pulley, 336 
Dimensions, squaring stock to, 143- 
145 
working drawings, 132-135 
Dipping, 184, 187, 190, 196 
Disk sanders, 309-311 
to turn, 329, 330 
Dividers, 18-21 


Index 


Dividing into equal parts, 9, 10, 20 
Dogs, 89, 106 
bench, 1-4 
Door and panel making, 174-177 
casings, flashing, 196 
Ler 256 
to hinge or “hang,’’ 177, 178 
Double-cut file, 85 pe! 
irons (planes), 59, 60 
surfacer, 300 
thread screw point, 75 
wedges, 105, 109 
Dovetailed cleats, 173 
dado, 218 
joints, 243 
tenon, 226, 228 
Dovetailing, 178, 
241, 260 
Dowel cutter, 234 
marker, 233 
plate, 234 
sharpener, 233 
with screws in end wood, 100 
Doweled butt joint, 213 
end joint, 246 
Doweling, 175, 231-235 
Dowels, 234 
Draw-bolt (joint), 212 
Draw boring, 230 
dogs, 89, 106 
Drawer dovetailing, 240-242 
locks, 255, 256 
making, 178-182 
Draw-filing scraper, 117 
Drawing nails, 96 
Drawings, working, 129, 132, 133 
Drawknife, 36, 45, 46 
to sharpen, 116 
Draw nailing, 92, 94, 95 
Drawshave. See Drawknife 
Dressing the parts, 129, 130 
Drill-stocks, 74-84 
Drills, automatic or push, 74, 83-85 
breast and hand, 74, 83-85 
for metal, 1, 80, 82 
push-, 84 
ratchet, 83, 84 
reciprocating, 84 
twist-, 80 
sharpening, 116 
Drum sanders, 308, 309 
Dryer, 195 
Drying wood, 345-348 ‘ 


IsI, 216, 240, 


Spy, 


Dull finish. See Finishing 
Duplicate lengths, to cut, 58, 281, 
282 
parts, to lay out, 30, 31 


Ebonizing, 187 


Edge, joint-. See Joint-edge 
joints, 242-245 
wire, I13 


Edged tools, 36, 37 
Edged tools, principle, 36, 37 
Edges of tools, 36, 37 
Edges, planing and jointing, 63-68 
grooved with spline, 243 
of box, 71 
matched, 243 
rabbeted, 244. See Rabbeting 
Eight sided stick, 71 
Elasticity, 349 
Elevations or views, 130, 132 
Enameling, 195 
End cleating, 172-173 
elevation or view, 130, 132 
grain, gluing, 204 
planing, 69, 70 
joints, 199, 245-247 
pressure, I51 
wood, gluing, 204 
Equal parts, dividing into, 9, 10, 20 
Escutcheons and pins, 89 
Estimating, 134 
Expansion and contraction, 32, 175, 
178, 180, 227, 346-348 
Expansive bit, 79 
bolt, 101 
Extension or slide rule, 8, 9 


Face side (working face), 13, 32 
Face-plate, 328, 330 

surface, 13, 32 

working-, 13, 32, 143, 144, 273 
Facing edges of case work, 260 
Fasteners, corrugated, 90 
Feathering strokes with plane, 64 
Feet for boxes, 160 
Felt for rubbing, 189, 190 
Fence. See Gauge 
Fence pickets, 150 
Figured grain, 340-344 
File, 85 

for metal, 6 

rounding with, 258 
Filing saws, 119, 120 


360 


Fillers and filling, 187, 188 
Fillistered joint, 244 
Fillets, jig for, 286 
Finger and pencil, gauging, 15 
Finishing, 130, 182-193 
carved work, 170 
nails, 89 
turning, 331 
Firmer chisel, 39 
Fish plates, 249 
Fitting handles, 6 
Flashing, 196-198 
Flat-faced hammer, 89 
Flexible ruler (spline), 22 
Floor-beams, 148, 149 
-laying, 198-200 
timbers, 149, 344 
to polish, IgI 
Flooring, sawing, 343, 344 
Foot, board-, 133, 134 
claw, 169 
power scroll saw, 298 
Square, 133, 134 
Ford bit, 75 
Fore plane, 60 
Forms for bending, I51, 152 
Forstner bit, 80 
Forty-five degrees, to find, 16-18 
Frame, braced and pinned, 137 
mitred, assembling, 148 
Framing (one-storied building), 148, 
149 
chisel, 39 
square, II 
French polishing, 189 
Fret or scroll saw, 55, 56 
Frog (plane), 60 
Fuming, 186 
Furniture polish or cleaner, 193 
repairing, 257, 258 


Gain, trimming, 41, 42 
Gained joint, 241 
Galvanized nails for boat work, 89 
for shingling, 93, 262 
Garnet sandpaper, 87, 188 
Gauge, 13 
for bit, 81 
butt, 178 
circular saw and other machines, 
2737-275, euc. 
countersink, 82 
emergency, 16 


Index 


for turning, 324 

for special work, 16 

mortise, 15 

pencil, 15 

roller, 15 

setting, 14 

stop, for boring, 81 

try square as, 15 
Gauging for hinges, 178, 208, 209 

thumb, 15 

with finger and pencil, 15 
Getting out stock, 129 
Gimlet, 74, 80, 84 

bit, 74, 80 
Glass, cutting, 200, 201 

plate, 201 

setting, 200, 201 

wedging, plate mirrors, 201 
Glazier’s points, 200 
Glazing, 200, 201 
Glue and its use, 201-207, 257 

joint, sawing for, 280 

joint, clamping, 103-106 

joint, doweling, 245 

pot, 207 

rubbed joint, 204 

testing, 202 
Gouge, 44, 45 

carving, 45, 163 

sharpening, 114-116 

sweep of, 45 

turning, 316 
Grain of wood, I41, 142, 340-345 

arrangement of, 66 

cutting with, 37-46, 63, 142, 143, 

164 
planing against, 63 
io across, 69 

end grain, planing, 69, 70 
Green wood, 341, etc. 
Grinders, oilstone, 110 
Grinding, I0g-III 

guides, 110 

wheels, I0g-I12 
Grindstone, 109, III, I12 
Groove, trimming, 4I, 42 

turning; 32,7224 
Grooving, 207, 282-285, 306 

saws and cutters, 282, 306, 333 
Guards for circular saw, etc.,276,277 

jointer, 302, 304 

band saw, 293 

mortiser, 332 


Index 


Guides for planing, 66, 67, 70, 72 
for drawers, 181 
saw-filing, 120 


Hack saw, 6 
Half-bead, to turn, 323, 324 
Half-lap and mortise, 229 
round file, and rasp, 85 
Halved joint, 214-216 
and mitre, 239 
splice, 249 
Halving. See Halved joint 
log, 342 
Hammer and nailing, 40, 89-96 
veneering, 264 
Hand block belt sander, 311, 312 
drills, 74, 83, 84 
Handle, tool, to turn, 325, 326 
Handles, fitting, 6 
Hand screws, 107 
Hanging a door, 177, 178 
Hardware fittings, 150, 183 
Hard wood, 349 
Hard wood floor laying, 198-200 
Hatchet, edge of, 36, 38, 39 
Headstock, 315 
Heart shakes, 351 
wood, 341, 349, 350 
Hexagonal stick, to make, 71, 72 
Hinge-fitting, 207-209 
Hinges, 207 
Hinging a door, 177, 178, 207-209 
Holes or cracks, to fill, 182, 183, 258 
Hollow auger, 83 
Hollow ground basil, 110-112 
Hollows and rounds, to turn, 326, 
327 
Hopper joint, 254, 255, 288-9 
Horizontal moulding machine, 333 
Horse power (circular saw), 275 
Horses, 5, 250 
Hot glue, 202 
Housing, housed joint, 213 
Hypothenuse, to find, 12 


I-beam, 140 
Inlaying, 209, 210 
Inside calipers, 21 
gouge, 45 
measurement, 9, 21 
work, sawing, 54-57, 287, 288, 
296, 298 
Intersection of lines, 16 





361 


Iron, plane-, 59 
to paint, 195 
Irregular moulding machine, 334 
Irwin bit, 75 
Ivory black, 187 


Jack board, 67, 70 
plane, 59; 61, 70 
Japan, 195 
Jigs, 72 
for doweling, 234 
circular saw, 286 
sander, 311 
Jig saw, 55, 56, 296-298 
Joint-edge, 13, 32, 143, 144, 174, 
273, 277, 303 
Jointer, 60, 65, 273, 302-308 
for filing saws, 120 
Jointing, 65-68 
saw teeth, I19, 120 
Joints, 139, 211-255 
breaking, 171 
glue, planing for, 66-68 
planing, after gluing, 205 
sprung, for gluing, 67 
painting, 194 
toggle, 199 
Jorgensen clamps, 108 


Keen edge, testing, 113 
Kerf, saw, 47 
Kerfing, 152 
Keyed tenons, 227-229 
Keyhole saw, 54 
Keys, to make, 229 
Kiln-drying, 346 
Knife, 7, 36, 37, 38 
point for marking, 37 
grinding, 114 
whetting, 114 
Knives, planer, 299, 300-303, 307 
*‘Knock-down”’ constructions, 228 
Knots, 351 
sawing through, 51 
to ‘‘kill”’ with shellac, 193 


Lac. See Shellac 

Lacing of belts, 337 
Lacquer, wood, I9I, 192 
Lag-screws, IOI 

Lamp black, 187 

Lap (cross) joint, 214-216 


362 


Lap or drawer dovetailing, 240-242 
Laps, to avoid, 184, 185, 186, 194 
Lathe, 314-331 
Laths, stay, 136, 137 
Lattice bridge, 138 
Lattice work, 150 
Laying floors, 197-200 
Laying out work, 7-32, 129 
Lead for flashing, 197 
red, 195 
white, and oil, 194 
Leg, curved, 295-6 
Length of belt, to find, 336 
Level, 22, 23 
Leveling tables, chairs, etc., 29-30 
Lid, sliding, 158 
Lime water, 187 
Lines, drawing, 7, 10, II, 13-16, 
22-25, 30, 31 
Linoleum, for rubbing, 190 
Linseed oil, for darkening, I91 
Lips, cutting, 75 
Liquid fillers, 188 
glue, 206 
List of materials, lumber, etc., 134- 
135 
Live: centre, 314, 315 
Lock corner, 246, 247, 335 
joint (three-way corner), 161, 162 
Locks and fitting, 255, 256 
Log, methods of sawing, 242-344 
Logwood, 187 
Loose pulleys, 336 
Lugs, 175 
Lumber, care of, 345, 347, etc. 
measurement, 133, 134 


seasoning, 345, 346 


M (lumber measurement), 134 
Machines, woodworking, 272-339 
Mallet, 40, 97-98 
Marking across the grain, II, 12 
awl, or scratch awl, 7 
from rule, 7, 8 
lines, 7 
measurements and dimensions, 
+ 7-10 
positions of parts, 31, 32 
short distances, 8 
spaces (turning), 321, 324 
with chisel, 7 
with gauge, 14 
with knife, 7, 8 


Index 


with the grain, 13-16 
with straight edge, 10 
Mason’s square, I2 
Matched boards, 198, 243 
nailing, 198, 199 
to strike, 243 
Matching planes, 61 
Materials, bill of, 129, 134, 135 
Measure, board, 133, 134 
Measurements, 7, 8, 9, 10 
of lumber, 133, 134 
Measuring rod, 8 
Medullary rays, 341 
Middle, to find, 9, 10 
Mirrors, plate glass, to wedge, 201 
Mitre, 235 
box, 57, 58 
dovetailing, 242 
jack (shooting) board, 67 
Saws, 275 
square, 16, 18 
to mark, 16-18 
Mitred joint, to nail, 236, 237 
Mitring, 235-239 
Modeling or shaping 
forms, 143 
carving, 167-170 
Model, strength of, 138 
Monkey wrench, 6 
Mortise and tenon, 175, 218-231, 
232, 334. 
Mortise chisel, 39 
gauge, 15 
locks, 255, 256 
Mortising machines, 332 
Motors, 336 
Moulding or shaping (carving) 167- 
170 
Moulding machines, 333, 334 
Mouldings, roughing out with cir- 
cular saw, 287 
making with jointer, 306 
Moulds for bending, 151, 152 
Mouth of plane, 59, 60 
Multiple slip joint, 246, 247 
Muntin, 174 


irregulai 


Nailing, 89-96 
blind, 94 
clinching, 95, 96 
silver, 93 
toe, 94 
mitred joint, 236, 237 


Index 363 


Nails, 89 Pickets, 150 
corrugated fasteners, 90 Picture-frame, mitred, assembling, 
cut nails, using, 92 148 
for shingling, 92, 93 Pigeon holes, joint for, 241 
to withdraw, 96 Pincers (pliers, nippers), 6 
Nail-set, 96, 97 Pinned mortise and tenon, 229, 230 
Narrow surfaces, planing, 63-68 Pipe wrench, 6 
Nibs, scoring, 75 Pitch of saw teeth, 120 
Nippers, cutting, 6 Pith rays, 341 
Notch, cutting, 38 Plain sawing (lumber), 342 
Notched joint, 251 Plan, 129, 132 
Novelty saws, 275 Plane, 36, 59-72 
adjusting cutting edge, 62 
Octagon (in square), 71 adjustments, 59, 60, 62 
Octagonal stick, to make, 71, 72 bead cutter, 72, 73 
Oil finish, I9g1 beading, 72, 73 
for darkening, 191 bit, 59 
for oil stones, 112 block, 60, 70 
Oiling bearings, 337, 338 bull-nosed, 61 
Oilstains, 185, 186 cap iron, 59, 60, 61 
Oil stone grinders, 110 circular, 61 
Oil stones, III, 112 combination (universal), 61 
Open work (inside), to saw, 54-56, core-box, 288 
296-298 dado, 61 
Orange shellac, 188, 189 double-ironed, 59, 60 
Outlining carving, 165-167 fore, 60 
Outside calipers, 21 frog, 60 
gouge, 44, 45 iron, 59, (to grind), I10, III 
iron cap, 59, 60 
Packing boxes, 160, I61 jack, 59, 61, 70 
crates, 161, 162 jack boards, 67 
Pad for polishing, 189 jointer, 60, 65 
rubbing, 190 matching, 61 
sanding, 87, 88 mouth, 59, 60 
Paddle, marking shape, 25 plow, 61 
Painting, 193-196 projection of cutting edge, 60, 62 
Panel saws, 48 rabbet, 61 
Paneling and door making, 174-177 router, 61 
Panels, types of, 176 sharpening, 60, 61 
Paraffine (for nails and screws), 93, shooting boards, 67 
100 smoothing, 60, 65, 70 
Paring, 36-46, 141-143 sole, 59 
chisel, 39 throat, 59 
Parting tool, carving, 163, 164, 169 toothing, 61 
turning, 322 universal, 61 
Paste fillers, 187, 188 wooden, adjustments and use, 61, 
Pattern making, 256 62 
Pencil, 7 Planer, 298-302, 349 
gauge, 15 jointer or ‘‘buzz,’’ 302-308 
gauging with rule and, 15, 16 knives, 299-307 
marks, to remove, 183 marks, 62, 301 
sharpening, 7 Planing, 63-72, 298-308, 349 


Penny (nails), 89 against the grain, 63 


364 


Planing—Continued 
broad surfaces, 68, 348 
edges, 63-68, 71 
end grain, 69, 70 
jointing edges, for glue joints, 65- 
68 


octagon, 7I 
shearing cut, 70 
traversing, 69 
warped or winding surface, 68, 69 
with the grain, 63 
Plank, 134 
Plaster of Paris, 183 
Plate glass, 201 
mirror, to wedge, 201 
Plates, 148, 149 
Pliers, 6 
Plow, 61, 207 
Plug cutter, 83 
(screw and plug bit), 83 
Plugs, to fill holes, etc., 258 
Plumb, 22-24 
Plumb-bob, 24 
Plywood, 351 
Pockets, screw, 252, 253 
Points, glazier’s, 200 
saw teeth, 47, 48, 51 
Polishing, French, 189 
floor, 191 
Portable machines, 275, 289, 292, 
296, 298, 308, 314 
Potash, bichromate of, 187 
Power saws, 273-298 
Preservation of wood, 351, 352 
Process, the, in woodworking, 129- 
132 
Processes for preserving wood, 351, 


352 
Pulleys, etc., 315, 335-337 
and belts, 335-337 
Pumice, 189, 190 
Punch. See Nazl-set 
Push brace, 84 
drills, 74, 84 
stick, 278, 282, 283, 287, 305 
Putting together. See Assembling 
Putty, 183, 194, 196 
knife, 196 
white lead, 183 
Pyrogallic acid, 186 


Quarter sawing, 343, 344 
Quick-action vises, I 


Index 


Rabbet, 257 
colored black, 201 
and mitre, 239 
plane, 61 
to cut with circular saw, 283, 
284 
with jointer, 306, 307 
Rabbeted joint, 178, 179, 216, 217, 
244, 254 
and Dado, 179 
Rabbeting, 257, 306, 307 
Radial sawing, 343-344 
Rafters, 148, 149 
Rails, 174 
Rasp, 85, 86 
Ratchet brace, 76, 77 
drills, 83 
screwdriver, 98, 99 
Ratchets for shelves, 261 
Rat-tailed file, 85 
Rays, medullary or pith, 341 
Reamers, 82 
Rear view or elevation, 132 
Reciprocating drills, 84 
Rectangle, to find centre, 317 
Red lead, 195 
Reed scrapers, 72, 73 
Refinishing old work, 192, 193 
Removing dents or bruises, 183 
paint from hands, 195 
Repairing furniture, etc., 257, 258 
Resawing, 296, 350 
Resharpening, 114 
Resinous matter, to kill, 193 
Reviver (of finish), 193 
Ridge pole or board, 148, 149 
Rift stock, 345 
Right angle, to find, II, 12, 13 
Rim-lock, 256 
Rings, annual, 341 
to turn, 331 
Rip saw, 46, 51-53 
filing, 120 
Rip sawing, 51-53, 274, 275-280, 
296 
Rivets, 95, 101 
Rod (drawing), 133 
measuring, 8 
Roller gauge, 15 
Roof brackets, 263 
stresses, 137-I4I 
Rosettes, to turn, 328 
Rotten stone, 190 


Index 


Roughing out carving with gouge, 
45, 168, 169 
turning, 316-319 

Rounded surfaces, to sand, 88, 89 
Rounding sticks and edges, 2 58, 259 
Round stick (cylinder), to saw, 58 
Round tenon, 227 

Rounds and hollows, to turn, 326, 


327 
Router, 61, 207, 333, 334 
Rubbed glue joint, 102, 204 
Rubber belts, 337 
rubbing blocks, 190 
sanding blocks, 88 
Rubber headed mallet, 97 
Rubbing down, 187-190, I9gI 
machines, 184 
Rule, 7, 8, 9, 10 
caliper, 22 
extension or slide, 8 
and ore gauging, I5, 16 
zigzag, 
Ruler. See Straight edge 
flexible, 22 
for marking (straight edge), 10 


Saddle boards, 262 
Safety-guards, 273, 276, 277, 290, 
291, 293, 302, 303, 307, 312, 
313, 332, etc. 

Sandpaper, 87-89 

blocks, 87, 88 

for finishing, 188, 189 

splitting, 188, 189 
Sanding, 87-89 

carving, 170 

finish, 187-189 

machines, 273, 308-312 

rounded surfaces, 88, 89 

turned work, 325, 328 
Sap wood, 341, 349, 350 
Saw, 46-56 

back, 53, 54 

band, 292-296 

bow, 54, 55 

bracket or scroll, 55, 56 

circular, 273-292 

clamp, II9, 120 

cleaning, 47 

clearance, 47, 48 

compass, 54 

coping, 56 

cross-cut, 46-51 


365 


filing, 119, 120 
guides, 120 
fret or scroll, 55, 56 
for cutting curves, 54-56, 292- 
298 
hack, 6 
horses (padded), 184 
jig, 55, 56, 296-298 
kerf, 47 
kerfs for bending, 152 
keyhole, 54 
panel, 48 
points of teeth, 47, 48, 51, 52 
rip, 46, 51-53 
scroll, 55, 56 
set, 47, 48, 119, 120 
sizes, 48, 51 
splitting or rip, 46, 51-53 
swing, 290-292 
teeth, 47, 48, 51, 52, 275 
teeth, rake or pitch, 120 
turning, 54, 55 
web, 54, 55 
Sawing duplicate lengths, 58, 281, 
282 
holes or inside openwork, 54-57, 
287, 288, 296, 298 
inlaying, 210 
log, 342-345 
round stick, 58 
to fit (end joints), 236 
Scale. See Rule 
(working drawings), 132 
Scarfed joint, 246 
Scarfing or splaying, 246 
Scoring the wood, 142, 143, 209 
Scraper, 86, 87 
bead or reed, 72, 73 
plane, 86 
to sharpen, II7, 118 
Scraping machines 335 
old work, 192 
tools, 329 
Scratch-awl, 7 
stock, 210 
Screw and plug bit, 83 
Screw driver, 98, 99 
bit, 98 
ratchet, 98, 99 
spiral, 98 
Screw holes, 100 
Screw pockets, 252, 253 
points (auger bit), 75 


366 


Screws, 99-101 
hand, 107 
lag, IOI 
sizes, IOI 
Scribing with compasses, 30, 259, 


317 
Scroll saw. See Jig saw, 55, 56, 
296-298 
Seasoning wood, 345-348 
sticking, 345 
tests for, 346 
Secret dovetailing, nailing, mortis- 
ing, etc. See Dovetatling, nazl- 
ing, etc. 
Section, 132, 133 
Segments, sawing with circular saw, 
288 
Selection of stock, 129, 340 
Semi-circular hollow, testing, 327 
Set, nail-, 96, 97 . 
Saw teeth, 47, 48, 51, 52, 119, 120, 


275 
Setting nails, 96, 97 
Shafting, etc., 335-338 
Shakes, 351 
Shaper, 333, 334 
Shaping, tools for, 36 
irregular forms, 143 
moulder, 334 
Sharpening pencils, 7 
tools, 109-120 
Sharpness, testing, 113 
Shave (drawshave), 45, 46 
(spokeshave), 73 
Shearing cut, 37, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46 
(stress), 138, 142, 169 
Shears or snips for metal, 6 
Sheathing, 243 
Shellac, 188, 189 
after staining, 185 
as filler, 188 
black, 187 
for holes and cracks, 183 
Shelves, fitting, 260, 261 
gained joint, 241 
Shingle nails, 92, 93 
Shingles, 262 
Shingling, 261-263 
Shiplap, 244 
Shooting board, 67 
Shop (workshop), I 
Shoulder, 213, 229, 241 
Shrinkage, 341, 342, 343, 344, etc. 





Index 


Side view or end elevations, 132 


| Side jointing (saw teeth), 120 


Siding, 172 
Silex, 188 
Sills, 148, 149, 150 
Similar parts, laying out, 30, 31 
Single-cut file, 85 
Single-ironed plane, 59, 60 
Single-surfacer, planer, 298-302 
thread screw point, 75 
Sizing dowels, 234 
end grain, 204 
tool, 325 
turning, 325 
in veneering, 264 
Skew chisel, 39, 163, 316 
Slab-sided file, 85 
Slash sawing, 342 
Sled, joints for, 254 
Slicing cut. See Shearing cut 
Slides for drawers, 181 
Slip joint, 246 
Slipping on belts, 337 
Slip stones, I15, 116 
“‘Sliver’’ nailing, 93 
Smoking wood, 346 
Smoothing plane, 60, 65, 70 


| Smoothness, testing for, 27 


Snips or shears for metal, 6 


| Soaking wood, 346 


Soap for nails and screws, 93, 100 
Socket chisels, 39 
Soft wood, 349 
Sole of plane, 59 
Spar varnish, 189 
Speed of belts, 336 
circular saws, 275 
lathe, 315 
pulleys, 336 


| Spheres and rings, to turn, 331 


Spindle sanders, 309-311 
Spiral screw driver, 98 


| Spirit level, 22, 23 


Splaying or scarfing, 246 
Splices. See Joints, 211-255 


| Splicing, 139, 248, 249 
| Spline, 22, 243 


Splined joint, 243 
Split and wedged dowels, 234 
or rift stock, 345 


| Splitter (spreader), 276 


Splitting gauge, 15, 274, 278 
sandpaper, 188, 189 


Index 


Splitting —Continued 
saw, 46, 51-53 
with circular saw, 277, 280 
wood, 36-39, 263 
Spokeshave, 72 
to grind, 110, III 
Spraying, Ag 190, 196, 273 
Spreader, 276 
Spring set, 275 
Sprung joint for gluing, 67 
Spur of gauge, 14 
Square, II, ™2 
combination, 18 
foot, 133, 134 
framing, II 
mason’s, 12 
members, in turning, 327, 328 
mitre-, 16 
steel, II 
to find centre, 317 
Squaring across the grain, II 
large work, 12 
stock to dimensions, 143-145 
Squareness, testing for, 27 
Staggering, 94, 99, 172 
Staging for shingling, 263 
Staining, 184-187 
Star shakes, 351 
Starved joint, 204 
Stay-laths, 136, 137 
Steam chest, 150, I51 
Steaming wood. See Bending 
Steel square, II 
wool, 87 
Stem (boat), joint, 254 
Stepping off with compasses, 20 
Sticking stock, 345 
Stick shellac, 183 
Stiles, 174 
Stillson wrench, 6 
Stock, air dried, 346 
bill, 134, 135 
care of, 345, 347, etc. 
scratch, 210 
seasoning of, 345, 346 
selection of, 129, 340 
Stool, four legged, to fewel, 29, 30 
Stop, bench, I, 2, 3, 4 
chamfer, I 54 
for circular saw, 281, 283, 284, 285 
gauges for boring, 81 
groove, 283, 284 
rabbet, 284, 285 


367 


Stop for drawer, 180 
Stove bolts, 101 
Straight- bent chisel, 39 


| Straight-edge, Io 


marking by, 10 
testing, 10 
testing with, 26-30 
Straightness, testing, 26 
Straight grain, 142 
Strains (stresses), 138-141 
Strap for bending, 151, 152 
hinges, 207 
Strength of bent wood, 153 
of materials, 138-141 
Stretcher joint, 252 
Strop, 113, 114 
Stropping, 113, I14 
Strut, construction, 136, 140 
Stub mortise and tenon, 224 
Studding, 148, 149 
Surfacer (planer), 298-302 
Swaged saw teeth, 275 
Sweep of gouge, 45 
Swelling and shrinking. See Ex- 
pansion and Contraction 
Swing of lathe, 315 
Swing saws, 273, 290-292 
Symmetrical work, laying out, 25 


Table, to level, 29, 30 
top, to fasten, 252, 253 
turn-, 184 
Tail stock, 315 
vise, I, 2 
Tallow, bayberry, 178 
Tang, 6 
chisel, 39 
Tanks, 60 
Tannic acid, 186 
Taper, to saw, 286 
ground (saws), 47 
to plane, 301, 306 
to turn, 321 
Tee rest, 315, 317 
Teeth saw, 47, 48, 51, 52, 275 
cross-cut, 47, 48 
compass, 54 
Tip, 51, 52 
Templates. See Temblets 
Templets, 82, 223, 331 
Tenon. See Mortise and Tenon, 
218-231 
to cut (circular saw), 285 


368 


Tenon—Continued 
to cut (jointer), 306, 307, 308 
to lay out, 223 
to wedge, 226, 227 

Tenoning machines, 333 

Tension, 138-141, 293, 297 

Testing angles, 16, 17, 18, 27 
surfaces and edges, 22, 23, 26-30 
tools for, 7 

T-hinges, 207 

Three points, arc through, 21 
-way corner, 161, 162 

Throat of plane, 59 

Through mortise and tenon, 218, 

224, 225 

Throwing off belts, 337 

Thrust joint, 250, 251 

Thumb gauging, 15 

Tie (construction), 136-141 

Tight and loose pulleys, 336 

Timbers, floor and roof, 344 

Tin for flashing, 197 

“Toe” nailing, 94, 211, 246 

Toggle-joint, 105, 199 

Tonguing, 175, 306 

Tonguing and grooving (flashing), 

196 
with tenon, 230 

Tool handle, to turn, 325 

Tools, 6 
edged, 36, 37 
edges of, 36, 37 
for boring, 74, 85 
for carving, 163 
for cutting, shaping, fitting, as- 

sembling, etc., 36-128 
for laying out and testing, 7-32 
for turning. See Turning 
metal, 6 
selection of, 5, 6 

Toothing, 203 
plane, 61 
knife, 335 
veneers, 264 

Top jointing (saw teeth), 119 
view or plan, 130, 132 

Torsion, 138 

Toughness, 350 

Toy boat (hull), 25 

Tracery, 170 

Trammel, 20 

Transverse strain, 138, 141 

habia 69 


Index 


T-rest, 315, 317 
Treenails, 230 
Trestles or horses, 5 
Trimmer, 74 
to sharpen, 118 
Trimming. See Paring, 36-46 
Tripoli, 190 
True surface, to determine, 26- 
30 
Truing oilstone, 112 
surfaces, 68, 69, 305, 346 
Trusses, 139-141 
Try square, II 
as gauge, 15 
Tumbling, 88 
Turning, 314-331 
chisel, 316 
edge of scraper, 117, 118 
finishing, 331 
gouge, 316 
saw, 54, 55, (teeth), 120 
Turn table, 184 
Turpentine, 186-189, 193-195 
Twist bit, 80 
drill, 80, (sharpening), 116 
“Twister,” 105 


Undercutting in carving, 167 
end joints, 198, 199, 246 
shoulders, 224, 229 

Unit of lumber measurement, 133, 


134 
Universal planes, 61 
Upholstering, 264 
Upsetting rivets, 95 


“V" or parting tool, 163, 169 
Valleys, flashing, 196, 197 
Varnish, etc., 189-191 
remover, 193 
stains, 186 
vessels for, 190 
Varnishing. See also Shellacing 
Veining tool, 163 
Veneered doors, 176, 177 
Veneering, 264, 265 
hammer, 265 
Veneers, 264 
gluing, 264 
Vise, bench, I, 2, 3, 4 
for metal, 6 
for saw filing, 119, 120 


Index 


“‘Wabbling”’ circular saw, 282, 283 
Walnut crystals, 187 
Warped surface, 26 

to true, 68, 69, 305, 346 
Warping of boards, 340-345, 347- 

359 | 

twisting, etc., to avoid, 348, 349 
Washita stones, I12 
Waste, 134 
Water colors, 195, 196 

resistant glues, 206 
Water stains, 185, 186 

table, 171 
Wax, finishing, I91, 193 

filling holes, etc., 183 

for nails and screws, 93, 100 
Weather drying. See Seasoning 
Web saw, 54, 55 
Chats Beeiic (edged tools), 36, 


Wedged dowels, 234, 235 
tenons, 226, 229 

Wedges, 105, 109 
cutting with circular saw, 286 

Whetting, 109, I1I-116 
guides, 110 

Wheel cutter, 56 

Wheels, grinding, 109-112 
small, 56 

White lead and oil, 194 
shellac, 188, 189 

Whiting, 196 

Whittling, 37, 38 

Wide surfaces, to make, 244, 245 
planing, 68, 69. See also Planer 
and Jointer 


369 


Winding, 26. See also Warping 
sticks, 28-30 
surface, to plane, 68, 69, 305, 346 
testing ‘for, 28-30, 69 
Window and door casings, flash- 
ing, 196, 199 
Wing compasses, 19 
Wire edge, 113, 116, 118 
nails, 89 
Withdrawing bit, 77 
nails, 96 
screws with broken heads, 100 
Witness-marks, 220 
Wood, 340-353. See also Lumber 
Wood alcohol, 188 
Wooden planes, 
use, 61, 62 
Wood lacquer, 191, 192 
turning, 314-331 
Woodworking machines, 272-339 
Work, laying out, 129 
Workbench, r2 
Working drawings, 120,122,133 
face and edge, 13, 32, 143-144, 
303 
Workshop, I 
Worm of bit, 76 
Wrecking tool, 6 
Wrench, 6 
Wrought nails, 89 


adjustment and 


Zigzag nailing, etc. See Staggering 
rule 8 
Zinc for flashing, 197 


paints, 194 





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